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Previous Article | Next Article
Volume 16, Number 22, Issue of November 15, 1996 pp. 7297-7307
Copyright ©1996 Society for NeuroscienceOrganization of Octopus Arm Movements: A Model System for Studying the Control of Flexible Arms
Yoram Gutfreund1, Tamar Flash2, Yosef Yarom1, Graziano Fiorito3, Idan Segev1, and Binyamin Hochner1 1 Department of Neurobiology and Center for Neuronal Computation, Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel, 2 Department of Applied Mathematics, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel, and 3 Laboratorio di Neurobiologia, Stazione Zoologica ``A. Dohrn'' di Napoli, Napoli 80121, Italy
ABSTRACT
Octopus arm movements provide an extreme example of controlled movements of a flexible arm with virtually unlimited degrees of freedom. This study aims to identify general principles in the organization of these movements. Video records of the movements of Octopus vulgaris performing the task of reaching toward a target were studied. The octopus extends its arm toward the target by a wave-like propagation of a bend that travels from the base of the arm toward the tip. Similar bend propagation is seen in other octopus arm movements, such as locomotion and searching. The kinematics (position and velocity) of the midpoint of the bend in three-dimensional space were extracted using the direct linear transformation algorithm. This showed that the bend tends to move within a single linear plane in a simple, slightly curved path connecting the center of the animal's body with the target location. Approximately 70% of the reaching movements demonstrated a stereotyped tangential velocity profile. An invariant profile was observed when movements were normalized for velocity and distance. Two arms, extended together in the same behavioral context, demonstrated identical velocity profiles. The stereotyped features of the movements were also observed in spontaneous arm extensions (not toward an external target). The simple and stereotypic appearance of the bend trajectory suggests that the position of the bend in space and time is the controlled variable. We propose that this strategy reduces the immense redundancy of the octopus arm movements and hence simplifies motor control.
Key words: movement control; muscular-hydrostat; kinematics; octopus; cephalopods; motor program; flexible arm; arm extension; reaching movements
INTRODUCTION
The control and coordination of arm movements in three-dimensional (3D) space is a complicated task, a challenge to both biological and artificial systems. Increasing the number of degrees of freedom of the arm makes this task more complicated (Hollerbach, 1990a
), and yet most biological movements involve a large number of degrees of freedom (in a rigid arm this number is directly related to the number and type of joints). An extreme case with especially high degrees of freedom is given by systems in which muscles are unattached to any internal or external skeleton whatsoever. Consequently, these structures are much more flexible than jointed limbs and have virtually unlimited degrees of freedom. Examples of such structures are cephalopod tentacles, some of the vertebrate tongues, and the elephant trunk. These structures are composed solely of muscles used to generate movement and provide the necessary skeletal support (Kier, 1982
The octopus arm is of special interest as a muscular-hydrostat, because it combines extreme flexibility (an octopus arm can bend at any point and in any direction, and it can elongate, shorten, and twist) with a capability for executing various sophisticated motor tasks, such as building a shelter, manipulating small objects (Wells and Wells, 1957
One strategy for gaining insights into the principles of planning and control of a motor system is to look for kinematic invariance in movement trajectories (Atkeson and Hollerbach, 1985
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental animals. Specimens of Octopus vulgaris were either caught on the Mediterranean shore by local fishermen or supplied by the Stazione Zoologica in Naples, Italy. The animals were maintained in 50 × 50 × 40 cm glass tanks containing artificial seawater. The water was circulated continuously in a closed system and filtered through coral dust and active charcoal. Water temperature was held at 16°C in a 12 hr light/dark cycle. For this study we used three animals weighing 300, 470, and 700 gm. Before video recording, the animals were placed in a bigger glass tank (80 × 80 × 60 cm) with a water temperature of 18°C. Video recording began only after the animals were well acclimatized to the new tank (after a few days).
Behavioral task and video recording. The trial started when a target, a green plastic disk of 2 cm diameter (see Fig. 1A, circle), was lowered into the water. The target was moved slightly to draw the attention of the octopus to it. The octopus either extended one or more arms or swam toward the target. Every few trials, the animal was rewarded with a piece of crab meat tied to the target. 
Fig. 1. An example of two stereotyped motor patterns: bend propagation (A) and bend initiation (B). Four video frames taken during the course of the movement are presented for each example (1-4). Time in milliseconds is given in the top right corner of each frame. The target, a green plastic disk (marked by a circle in A1 and B1), is in the bottom left corner. The arrowhead in A1 shows the sucking rings. Notice the bend in the arm (arrow in A), which propagates toward the tip. In an already extended arm (B1), a bend is initiated at a certain point along the arm (arrow in B2), and the part distal to this point is pulled backward (B3-4).
[View Larger Version of this Image (126K GIF file)]
Two video cameras were used to record the arm movements. The cameras viewed the subject from the same aquarium face with an angle of ~90° between them. Shutter speed of both cameras was set to 1/250. The PAL superVHS video system was used, allowing a temporal resolution of 20 msec between adjacent images. The video images from both cameras were combined into one image through a video mixer.
Those trials in which the octopus extended its arm toward the target were termed ``successful trials,'' regardless of whether the arm hit or missed the target. Successive video images of successful trials were digitized and displayed on a Silicon Graphics work station. Points of interest were marked manually with the mouse cursor on each image. The coordinates of the points from both cameras were saved.
Transformation between camera coordinates and external XYZ coordinates. The positions of designated points in 3D space were obtained by applying the direct linear transformation (DLT) method, a method commonly used for obtaining 3D coordinates from two cameras. Briefly, each camera is characterized by 11 parameters. The relation between these parameters and the external XYZ coordinates is defined by the DLT equations as follows: where x1and y1are the image coordinates of a designated point in the image of camera 1. X, Y, and Zare the unknown 3D coordinates of that point, and P1-P11are 11 camera parameters that are related to the camera position, orientation, and optical properties (Wood and Marshall, 1986
Although the DLT transformation assumes ideal cameras, video cameras are expected to have some image distortions. It has been shown empirically that as long as the object location is limited to within the calibration volume, sufficient accuracy is achieved (Wood and Marshall, 1986
Determination of the plane of motion. A multiple linear regression method was used to determine the plane of motion. We calculated the coefficients a0, a1, and a2 that give the best fit, in a least-square approximation, of the motion trajectory to a linear plane equation: where the Y values are the coordinates of the data points along one of the axes for the dependent variable, and X1 and X2 values are the corresponding coordinates of the independent variables. For each movement we repeated the multiple regression analysis three times, each time using a different axis as a dependent variable (Y). The plane of motion was determined by the coefficients a0, a1, and a2, which gave the least-square error. The coefficient of determination R2 was used to describe the fit of the data to a plane. An F-test was used to examine the statistical significance of R2.
Finally, to present the data in a clear manner, the data coordinates were transformed to another coordinate system in which the origin is located at the first data point and one of the axes is perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Tangential velocity. The tangential velocity of a point, that is, its velocity in the direction of movement, was calculated from the position data. We first smoothed the data by fitting a fifth order polynomial to the projection of the points on the X, Y, and Z axes as a function of time [one polynomial for X(t), one for Y(t), and one for Z(t)]. The six coefficients of these three polynomials were obtained by calculating the least-square equation, using the singular value decomposition algorithm (Press et al., 1992 The accuracy of the tangential velocity calculations was estimated by measuring the velocity of a point moving at a known speed (an oscilloscope beam). It was found that within the speed range of 5-50 cm/sec (the range of velocities measured in the experiment), the error increased slightly with velocity. The root mean square (RMS) of the error measured at a speed of 50 cm/sec was ± 4%, with a maximal error of 9%.
RESULTS
Arm extension in the octopus is a fundamental component in various behaviors, such as locomotion, searching, and reaching toward a target. In all cases, the arm is extended in what seems to be a stereotyped and robust pattern. An example of an arm extended toward a target is shown in Figure 1A (the target is marked by a circle). The four images, taken during the course of the movement, show that the arm is extended by using a wave-like propagation of a bend in the arm (arrow), which travels from the base of the arm toward its tip. The bend is always curved dorsally so that the sucking rings, located on the ventral side of the arm (arrowhead in Fig. 1A, frame 1), point in the direction of movement. In cases where the arm is already extended, as in Figure 1B, the movement is initiated by first creating a bend, which is formed by twisting the arm (arrow in Fig. 1B, frame 2), and then pulling the distal part backward. After this maneuver, the bend travels toward the tip of the arm in the desired direction, as demonstrated in Figure 1A.
We outline the extension of the arm by registering the movement of two designated points: (1) one of the eyes (marked in Fig. 1A) and (2) the midpoint of the bend, which we termed ``bend-point'' (marked in Fig. 1A). Figure 2A depicts the path of these two points during a reaching task, at 20 msec intervals. The octopus reached toward the target (marked by X) by moving the bend from the vicinity of its body outward. At the same time the octopus moved toward the target. This body movement is represented on the graph by the changes in eye location, which because the head of the octopus is rigid give a good estimation of the movement of the body center. To characterize the kinematic features of arm extension independent of body movements, we have analyzed the movement of the bend-point relative to the body. The relative movement was obtained by vectorially subtracting the measured movement of the eye from the bend-point movement. An example of the subtraction is depicted in Figure 2B. This procedure was repeated in all trials. 
Fig. 2. Movement of the bend-point (the midpoint of the bend in the arm) in 3D space. The DLT algorithm (see Materials and Methods) for analyzing stereo video recordings was used to obtain a description of the movements in space and time. A, 3D graph showing eye (rectangle) and bend-point (circles) position during a reaching task. Target location is marked by an X. Each point on the graph represents the position in a single video field (20 msec interval between images). The arrow marks the direction of movement. B, The movement of the bend-point relative to the eye. The direction of movement is marked by the arrow.
[View Larger Version of this Image (28K GIF file)]
Bend-point path
Analysis of the bend-point path in 84 reaching movements shows that the bend-point tends to move within a single plane in a simple, slightly curved path. The plane of motion and the degree of planarity were determined by multiple linear regression (see Materials and Methods). Table 1 summarizes the average distance traveled by the bend-point in the plane of motion, the average SE of the fit (residual error), and the average R2. In all trials (except one in octopus C), R2 was significantly positive (p < 0.01; F-test). The average SE is small compared with the average movement in the plane of motion. This, as well as the high average R2 values, indicates that to a good approximation the bend-point moves within a single plane. In general, this plane corresponds to the sagittal plane of the arm, which is defined by the ventral location of the sucking rings.
Table 1. Summary for three octopuses showing the average SE of the fit of the bend-point path to the plane of motion, the average distance traveled by the bend-point in the plane of motion, and the average R2
Octopus A Octopus B Octopus C SE 0.60 ± 0.25 cm 0.42 ± 0.16 cm 0.49 ± 0.19 cm Distance 33.44 ± 12.3 cm 25.80 ± 8.9 cm 29.74 ± 8.1 cm R2 0.88 ± 0.10 0.89 ± 0.14 0.75 ± 0.24 Number of trials 33 29 22 Values are averaged over all trials with ±SD.
The planarity of the movement enables us to reduce the space of interest to two dimensions without losing significant information. Figure 3A shows the data from Figure 2 in a transformed coordinate system where the XZ plane is parallel to the best fitted plane. As expected from a planar movement, the data points in the two-dimensional view of the transformed YZ plane are organized along a straight line (Fig. 3B). 
Fig. 3. Bend-point path is planar. A, 3D graph showing the data from Figure 2B in a transformed coordinate system where the XZ plane is parallel to the plane of best fit. B, 2D view of the YZ plane, demonstrating the planar organization of the movement. In the example shown, the SE of the fit is 0.61 cm.
[View Larger Version of this Image (27K GIF file)]
The characteristic features of the bend-point path within the best fitted plane are shown in Figure 4A-C for the three animals tested. Four different reaching movements are shown for each animal. The dots mark the data, and the lines mark the fitted fifth-order polynomials. The direction of movement is indicated by the arrows. In all animals the path is either slightly curved or, less frequently, nearly a straight line. These results indicate that the bend-point moves in a relatively simple path in respect to the animal's body. 
Fig. 4. Examples of the bend-point path measured in different trials and from different octopuses. The path of four different reaching movements is depicted for each animal (A-C) on the plane of movement (the best-fit linear plane). The dots show the measured positions, and the lines are the fitted fifth-order polynomials (see Materials and Methods). The direction of movement is indicated by the arrows. The initial point of the movements was displaced on the graph to improve clarity of display.
[View Larger Version of this Image (17K GIF file)]
Bend-point velocity
The tangential velocity of the bend-point as a function of time (velocity profile) during a reaching task was calculated from 84 trials (see Materials and Methods). It should be noted that a bend is a dynamic structure that can evolve or disappear during the movement of the arm, and so the velocity may start and end at values other than zero, as can be seen in Figure 5A. This contrasts with measurements of the velocity of fixed points in moving structures, like the tip of the arm (Hollerbach and Flash, 1982
Fig. 5. Tangential velocity profiles are invariant. A, Bend-point tangential velocity, calculated from the smoothed kinematic data during three trials, is plotted against time. The profiles share a similar pattern, which can be divided into three phases (marked by the arrows). This division corresponds to different stages of the movement (see Results). B, The velocity profiles shown in A, normalized for velocity and distance and aligned at the peak, demonstrate a substantial overlap during phase II.
[View Larger Version of this Image (17K GIF file)]
Figure 5A shows three velocity profiles measured from the same octopus. Although the range of velocities of these movements varies, they all demonstrate a characteristic velocity profile. This profile can be divided into three phases (Fig. 5A, arrows in curve c). Phase I is the initial part of the movement. This phase ends at the minimum (marked by the left arrow) and is characterized by a monotonic decrease in velocity (profiles a and c) or by an initial increase in velocity followed by a local peak (profile b). Phase II, which starts at the local minimum and ends at the peak velocity (right arrow), is characterized by a monotonic increase in velocity. Phase III is the final phase of the movement where the velocity decreases until the bend-point disappears.
Phase I corresponds to the transition between the initiation and propagation of the bend (Fig. 1B). This stage of the movement is variable; it depends on the initial position of the arm and on the direction of arm extension. Phase II corresponds to the propagation of the bend-point along the arm. This stage, which is the most prominent and robust, is shown in Figure 1A. The main part of the arm extension occurs during this stage. Typically, the velocity reaches a maximum in the vicinity of the target. After this maximum, the bend moves toward the tip with what seems to be a passive wave propagation. This stage corresponds to the decrease in velocity in phase III. In many cases, the bend disappears before reaching the tip of the arm. This basic velocity pattern was observed in 65 of the 84 tangential velocity profiles. The remaining 19 cases, which were distributed among the three animals, did not match this basic pattern and demonstrated various velocity profiles.
Invariance of tangential velocity is commonly tested by normalizing the movement speed with respect to amplitude and duration (Atkeson and Hollerbach, 1985 Dwas calculated using:
where Xand Zare the coordinates of the smoothed data in the best fitted plane, and the index tdesignates the image num- ber (time ).
In Figure 5B, the three profiles from Figure 5A have been normalized and superimposed by aligning the peaks. These normalized curves demonstrate a clear overlap in phase II, suggesting that some common constraint dictates the pattern of velocity increase during this phase. To examine the generality of this observation, all velocity profiles with the characteristic pattern as shown in Figure 5A were superimposed in Figure 6A-C. In addition, an average velocity profile and its variance were calculated for each animal (Fig. 6D). The superimposition of the normalized velocities (Fig. 6A-C) shows that the result of Figure 5B, in which phase II is invariant and phases I and III are variable, holds for the majority of arm extensions. The similarity of the velocity profiles during phase II is demonstrated further by the variance shown in Figure 6D: the variance during phase II is very low, relative to the variance during phases I and III. Velocity profiles are similar, not only in individual animals but also among different animals, as shown by the remarkable overlap of the average normalized velocity profiles from different animals (Fig. 6D). 
Fig. 6. Comparison between normalized tangential velocity profiles from different animals. Sixty-five normalized velocity profiles aligned at the peak are displayed in three graphs (A-C) corresponding to three animals. An average velocity profile and its variance were extracted for each animal and superimposed in D. A remarkable similarity of the average normalized velocity profiles from the different animals is observed (D, top graph).
[View Larger Version of this Image (44K GIF file)]
Two-arm coordination
The issue of coordination between different arms is especially interesting in the case of the octopus, because of its need to control eight flexible arms. An insight into the mechanism of arm coordination can be obtained from those trials in which the octopus extends two or more arms. Figure 7, A and B, shows two examples where the octopus extends two arms toward the target (located in the bottom left corner of the picture) by propagating a bend in each of the arms (marked by arrows). The arms can either move together, as shown in Figure 7A, or move one after the other, as shown in 7B. We have analyzed the velocity of the bend-point propagation for the cases of synchronous and consecutive movements. Figure 7C shows the bend-point positions of two arms moving simultaneously; the tangential velocities are depicted in 7D. Note that the curves in Figure 7D are not normalized. It is clear that the velocity of both arms follows a similar pattern. Such velocity coupling was also observed in arms moving consecutively with a short delay between them. An example is shown in Figure 7, E and F. In this trial, the octopus first extended one arm toward the target, and 1.3 sec later a second arm was extended (bend-point positions are shown in E). Clearly, in this case the two arms also moved with almost identical velocity profiles but with a constant phase lag of ~1.3 sec between them (F).
Fig. 7. Two arms moving toward a target simultaneously, or one after the other with a short delay, tend to move at the same speed. A, B, Video frames showing an octopus extending two arms toward the target, which is in the left side of the frame. A, Two arms moving simultaneously. B, Two arms moving one after the other. C, D, Bend-point trajectories of two arms moving simultaneously were measured. The positions of the bend-points and eye are shown in C. The tangential velocity profiles (D) follow a similar pattern. E, F, Bend-point trajectories from two arms moving one after the other with a short delay. The path of the two arms is shown in E, and the tangential velocities plotted against time are shown in F.
[View Larger Version of this Image (45K GIF file)]
To quantify the similarities between the velocity profiles of two moving bend-points, we first aligned the profiles at the beginning of the movement and then calculated the RMS of the velocity differences according to: where V1 and V2 are the velocities of the two bend-points, t is the image number (20 msec interval), and n is the number of images where the velocity was measured and compared. This procedure was repeated for three groups of movements: (1) synchronous movements, where the two arms moved toward the same target at the same time; (2) consecutive movements, where the arms moved to the same target (same trial) but with a short delay between them (0.4-1.3 sec); and (3) control group movements. For this group we arbitrarily chose movements from two different trials performed by the same octopus. The average RMS of these three groups is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The average root mean square (RMS) of the differences between pairs of velocity profiles measured from synchronous movements, consecutive movements, and different trials (control group)
Average RMS ± SD (cm/sec) Number of pairs Synchronous group 6.26 ± 1.7 10 Consecutive group 6.84 ± 2.5 7 Control group 13.46 ± 5.1 10 The average RMS is given here as a quantitative estimation for the similarity between pairs of tangential velocity profiles.
The similarity between the velocity profiles in the synchronous group, as well as for the consecutive group, is significantly larger than for the control group (p < 0.01; Mann-Whitney rank test). We conclude that when two arms are moving toward the same target, they tend to move with the same velocity profile. This result suggests a common source for the generation of movements that are produced within the same behavioral event. Bend propagation in spontaneous movements
As mentioned above, the generation and propagation of a bend occurs during various behaviors. This raises the question of whether the same stereotyped characteristics of bend-point path and velocity as seen in the reaching task are also to be found during other behaviors. To answer this question, we compared the trajectories generated in spontaneous movements (those not directed toward a target) with those measured during reaching movements.
Bend propagation in spontaneous movements occurs either when the arm is moving freely in the water (unconstrained movements) or when the arm is extended along a solid surface such as the aquarium side (constrained movements). In the latter case, the bend travels on the surface while the sucking rings proximal to the bend grip this surface. We examined bend-point trajectories from both of these modes of movement (unconstrained and constrained).
The spontaneous movements were analyzed using the same analytical procedure as for the reaching movements. First, the planarity of the movement was tested by calculating the best fit linear plane containing the movement. This part of the analysis was applied only to unconstrained movements, because the constrained movements are limited a priori to a surface. We found that the paths of the bend-points in the unconstrained movements were confined to a single plane (average R2 of 0.81 ± 0.19; n = 11, all statistically significant). This was similar to the results obtained in the reaching movements (Table 1).
In 10 of the 11 unconstrained movements measured, the tangential velocity profiles had a characteristic pattern similar to that shown in reaching behavior (compare Fig. 8A with Figs. 5 and 6). In Figure 8C, the four tangential velocity profiles from Figure 8A (solid lines) have been normalized and superimposed together with three normalized velocity profiles measured during a reaching task (dashed lines). The significant overlap of all the curves demonstrates that the invariant nature of the velocity profiles shown in reaching movements is found in spontaneous unconstrained movements as well. 
Fig. 8. Tangential velocity profiles measured from spontaneous arm extensions. A, Four tangential velocity profiles measured during spontaneous unconstrained movements (i.e., movements freely in the water and not directed toward a target). B, Four tangential velocity profiles measured during constrained spontaneous movements (touching the surface of the aquarium walls or floor). C, The normalized velocity profiles of the unconstrained movements shown in A (solid lines) are superimposed on three normalized velocity profiles obtained from movements during a reaching toward a target (dashed lines).
[View Larger Version of this Image (18K GIF file)]
In contrast, six of eight constrained movements did not resemble this basic pattern. Four examples are shown in Figure 8B. Their velocity profiles showed either constant velocity (two lower traces) or slight changes in speed. The constrained movements had generally lower velocities.
DISCUSSION
This study is the first detailed and quantitative kinematic analysis of octopus arm movements. It shows that despite the fact that an octopus arm has virtually infinite degrees of freedom, arm movements are executed in a stereotyped manner. Our study has focused on extension movements that are generated by a bend propagating along the arm. This bend propagation is a basic movement pattern that is used in different behaviors, such as locomotion, searching, and reaching.
In flexible structures, a propagating bend can be generated by either a passive whip-like action or an active mechanism involving muscle contraction along the arm. We have shown previously that bend propagation in the octopus arm is associated with a propagating wave of muscle activity (Hochner et al., 1995
The present kinematic study demonstrates that in the octopus arm, the bend tends to propagate along a stereotyped trajectory. In particular, the bend propagates along a relatively simple curved path, which is contained in a linear plane. Although the path itself is not necessarily invariant, the normalized velocity profile has the same kinematic form regardless of movement direction, speed, or amplitude. This observation resembles results obtained from human and primate arm movement studies (Morasso, 1981
Is there a general movement-generation principle that is common to both cases? Octopus arms are essentially different from human-like arms in both anatomy and control mechanisms. The aim of the control system in human-like arms is to bring the tip of the arm to the target, whereas in octopus any part of the arm can be used to grab the target. There is, therefore, no special significance to the tip point or any other fixed point along the arm; however, the bend is instrumental in leading the arm in the desired direction. In this sense, like the human hand, controlling the bend-point trajectory is a reasonable strategy. We have shown that the bend-point follows a simple planar path from the body center toward the target. The simplicity and stereotyped appearance of this path suggests that bend-point position is an important variable for the planning and control of octopus arm movements. Another possibility, however, is that the simple and stereotyped appearance is a by-product of some unknown constraint in the system. In this case the bend-point per se would not be controlled directly by the nervous system.
Researchers of motor control of articulated arms have pointed out the trade-off between planning movement in external coordinates and the computational difficulties of executing the planned movement (Hollerbach, 1990b
What is the analogy for the inverse problem in octopus arm movements? If bend-point location in time and space is an important controlled variable, the inverse problem in the octopus is the transformation from bend-point coordinates to muscle activity. This transformation, however, need not be that complicated. Assuming that only one bend is traveling along the arm, and indeed this is the case in the reaching task, the number of degrees of freedom of the arm can be reduced dramatically: one for the movement of the bend along the axis of the arm and two for the yaw and pitch movements of the arm around its base (roll movements are not observed during reaching). Such a system reduces computational complexity tremendously. Moreover, because bend propagation is generated by a propagating wave of muscle contraction (Hochner et al., 1995
We have found that different reaching movements vary in speed and distance but maintain a basic velocity pattern repeated in both target-oriented and spontaneous movements. Furthermore, the same pattern is observed in different octopuses. The particular shape of the velocity profile (tangential velocity of the bend as a function of time) may reflect an optimal neuronal control strategy or might be attributable to some mechanical factors. We found further that the mid-part of the movements (i.e., phase II in Fig. 5) can be attributed to the same basic profile scaled for speed and distance. One explanation for the scaling properties is that bend propagation is generated by a built-in motor program that can be adjusted by simple scaling of the same pattern to produce different speeds. The output of such a system is a basic invariant trajectory that reflects the dynamics of the underlying neural activation pattern (Gracco, 1988
A number of issues, however, still remain unclear. What is the explanation for the variance observed in the scaled velocities and in the path of the bend-point? Why is the basic pattern not demonstrated in all reaching movements? The nervous system of the octopus is divided into a central brain and axial nerve cords along the arms. The majority of the nerve cells are located in those axial nerve cords (Young, 1971
FOOTNOTES
Received May 30, 1996; revised Aug. 13, 1996; accepted Aug. 26, 1996.
This work was supported by the Office of Naval Research (N00014-94-1-0480) and by the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities (190/95-1). We thank Dr. A. Sigalov and the Visualization Center of the Hebrew University for their assistance in analyzing video images. We also thank Hanoch Meiri and Shira Oren for technical assistance.
Correspondence should be addressed to Yoram Gutfreund, Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel.
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