 |
Next Article 
The Journal of Neuroscience, 2001, 21:RC165:1-6
RAPID COMMUNICATION
Neural Correlates of Conscious Self-Regulation of Emotion
Mario
Beauregard1, 2, 3,
Johanne
Lévesque3, 4, and
Pierre
Bourgouin1
1 Département de Radiologie, Faculté de
Médecine, Université de Montréal and Centre
Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM),
Hôpital Notre-Dame, Montréal, Québec, Canada H2L 4M1,
2 Centre de Recherche en Sciences Neurologiques,
Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal,
Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3J7, 3 Centre de
Recherche, Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal,
Montréal, Québec, Canada H3W 1W5, and
4 Département de Psychologie, Université de
Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3J7
 |
ABSTRACT |
A fundamental question about the relationship between cognition and
emotion concerns the neural substrate underlying emotional self-regulation. To address this issue, brain activation was measured in normal male subjects while they either responded in a normal manner
to erotic film excerpts or voluntarily attempted to inhibit the sexual
arousal induced by viewing erotic stimuli. Results demonstrated that
the sexual arousal experienced, in response to the erotic film
excerpts, was associated with activation in "limbic" and paralimbic
structures, such as the right amygdala, right anterior temporal pole,
and hypothalamus. In addition, the attempted inhibition of the sexual
arousal generated by viewing the erotic stimuli was associated with
activation of the right superior frontal gyrus and right anterior
cingulate gyrus. No activation was found in limbic areas. These
findings reinforce the view that emotional self-regulation is normally
implemented by a neural circuit comprising various prefrontal regions
and subcortical limbic structures. They also suggest that humans have the capacity to influence the electrochemical dynamics of their brains,
by voluntarily changing the nature of the mind processes unfolding in
the psychological space.
Key words:
emotional self-regulation; consciousness; volition; metacognition; prefrontal cortex; "limbic" structures; functional
magnetic resonance imaging
| |
INTRODUCTION |
Emotional
self-regulation refers to the heterogeneous set of processes by which
individuals influence, consciously and voluntarily, which emotions they
have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these
emotions (Gross, 1999 ). Given the multicomponential nature of
emotions which comprise cognitive, experiential, behavioral, and
physiological dimensionsemotional self-regulation may be associated
with changes in one or more of these response domains (Gross, 1999).
This form of self-regulation involves decreasing, maintaining, or
increasing both negative and positive emotions (Masters, 1991; Parrott,
1993; Langston, 1994), by using various cognitive regulatory processes
such as rationalization, reappraisal, and suppression (Gross, 1999;
Hariri et al., 2000).
Disturbances of normal emotional self-regulation might be a key factor
in the genesis of depression and anxiety, both of which may involve a
chronic inability to suppress negative emotion (Jackson et al., 2000).
Regarding this issue, it has been postulated that impulsive aggression
and violence also arise as a consequence of defective regulation of
emotional responses (Davidson et al., 2000). Given that the ability to
modulate emotions is at the heart of the human experience, it is not
surprising that the use of emotional self-regulatory processes
constitutes the core of several modern psychotherapeutic approaches.
Despite the immense impact of emotional self-regulation for the
conduct of human affairs in daily life, few things are known with
respect to the neurobiological substrate subserving the psychological processes associated with the volitional modulation of emotional responses. With respect to this question, Nauta (1971) and Tucker et
al. (1995) have theorized that the frontal neocortex and
limbic/paralimbic structures are components of a frontolimbic network
involved in the regulation of emotion. More recently, Davidson and
associates (2000) have proposed, on the basis of various evidence from
experimental lesion studies in animals and clinical neuropsychological,
psychophysiological, and functional brain mapping studies in humans,
that emotional self-regulation may be normally implemented by a neural
circuit consisting of several regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
[e.g., orbitofrontal PFC, dorsolateral PFC, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)], and of subcortical limbic structures, such as the amygdala and
the hypothalamus. The present functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) study was undertaken to test the validity of this view.
| |
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
Subjects. Ten healthy male (Caucasian)
volunteers (age range, 20-42; mean age, 23.5) participated in this
study. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects.
Behavioral procedures. Blood oxygen
level-dependent (BOLD) signal changes were measured during two
experimental conditions, i.e., a sexual arousal condition and an
attempted inhibition condition. In the sexual arousal condition,
subjects viewed a series of erotic film excerpts and emotionally
neutral film excerpts. They were instructed to react normally to both
types of stimuli. In the case of the erotic film excerpts, this meant
that the subjects had to allow themselves to become sexually aroused in
response to the erotic film excerpts. In the attempted inhibition
condition, subjects were instructed to inhibit any emotional reaction
to both categories of stimuli. These instructions meant that the subjects had to voluntarily decrease the intensity of the sexual arousal felt in reaction to the erotic film excerpts. To accomplish that goal, subjects were encouraged to distance themselves from these
stimuli, that is, to become a detached observer. They were also
instructed to look at the stimuli directly during both experimental conditions.
Erotic film excerpts were selected on the basis of previous work by our
group demonstrating the efficiency of such stimuli at bringing rapidly
and automatically a marked positive change in the subjective emotional
experience of healthy male subjects, change correlated with significant
activation of limbic brain regions (Beauregard et al., 1998). These
film excerpts depicted different kinds of sexual interactions (e.g.,
oral sex, vaginal intercourse, etc.) between one woman and two or three
men, two women and one man, and between two or more women. The
emotionally neutral film excerpts were matched to the erotic film
excerpts with respect to the number and the gender of the individuals
involved in various social interactions (e.g., interviews, carpentry,
etc). Erotic film excerpts were presented with their original sound tracks consisting of instrumental music. To avoid any confounding effect attributable to the information processing of language perceived
in an auditory manner, emotionally neutral music was superimposed on
the neutral film excerpts. Both categories of film excerpts were
selected from a private bank of validated stimuli created by the investigators.
The sexual arousal condition corresponded to one functional run and
consisted of the viewing of, first, four blocks of emotionally neutral
film excerpts and, then, four blocks of erotic film excerpts. On the
basis of evidence gathered previously by our group, this design was
adopted to avoid contamination of the neutral stimuli by the erotic
stimuli. Each block lasted 39 sec. Blocks were separated by resting
periods of 15 sec, during which subjects viewed a blank cyan screen.
The attempted inhibition condition corresponded to the other functional
run and also consisted of the viewing of, first, four blocks of
emotionally neutral film excerpts and, then, four blocks of erotic film
excerpts. The order of presentation of the functional runs was
counterbalanced across subjects. In addition, the neutral and erotic
stimuli that were used in the sexual arousal condition for half of the
subjects were presented for the other half of the subjects in the
attempted inhibition condition (and vice versa).
To assess the subjective responses of the subjects to the stimuli,
immediately at the end of each functional run, they were asked to rate
verballyon a visual analog rating scale ranging from 0 (absence of
any emotional reaction) to 8 (strongest emotion ever felt in one's
lifetime)the average intensity of sexual arousal or primary emotions
[e.g., sadness, happiness, disgust, fear, anger, surprise (Plutchik,
1994)] felt during the viewing of both categories of film excerpts.
For each functional run, an average rating score was computed for the
four blocks of erotic film excerpts and the four blocks of emotionally
neutral film excerpts. At the end of the scanning session, subjects
were also asked to complete a "strategy questionnaire" in which
they described the emotion regulation strategies they used to inhibit
the sexual arousal generated by the erotic stimuli.
MRI. Echoplanar images (EPIs) were acquired on a
1.5 Tesla system (Magnetom Vision, Siemens Electric, Erlangen,
Germany). Twenty-eight slices (5 mm thick) were acquired every 3 sec in an inclined axial plane, aligned with the anterior
commissure-posterior commissure axis. These T2* weighted
functional images were acquired using an EPI pulse sequence
[repetition time (TR) = 0.8 msec; echo time (TE) = 54 msec;
Flip angle = 90°; field of view (FOV) = 215 mm;
Matrix = 64 × 64)]. After functional scanning,
high-resolution data were acquired via a Tl-weighted three-dimensional
volume acquisition obtained using a gradient echo pulse sequence
(TR = 9.7 msec; TE = 4 msec; Flip angle = 12°; FOV = 215 mm; Matrix = 256 × 256).
Data were analyzed using Statistical Parametric Mapping software
(SPM99, Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, London, UK). Images
for all subjects were realigned to correct for artifacts caused by
small head movements and spatially normalized into an MRI stereotactic
space (Talairach and Tournoux, 1988). Images were then convolved in
space with a three-dimensional isotropic Gaussian kernel (12 mm full
width half maximum) to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and to
accommodate for residual variations in functional neuroanatomy that
usually persist between subjects after spatial normalization.
For both sexual arousal and attempted inhibition conditions, a
conventional subtraction method was used to contrast the brain activity
associated with the viewing of the erotic film excerpts and that
associated with the viewing of the emotionally neutral film excerpts.
For the statistical analysis, the time series of the images were
correlated with the delayed boxcar function that approximates the
activation patterns, and a fixed effects general linear model for
autocorrelated observations was applied voxelwise. Voxel values for
each contrast yielded a statistical parametric map of the t
statistic (SPM t), subsequently transformed to the unit
normal distribution (SPM Z). An a priori search
strategy was used. A whole-brain post hoc analysis was also
performed. The a priori search strategy predicted
significant activation in the PFC (orbitofrontal PFC, dorsolateral PFC,
anterior cingulate cortex), the amygdala, the temporal pole, and the
hypothalamus. The search volume corresponding to the brain regions of
interest was defined a priori by tracing the neuroanatomical
boundaries of these regions on the MR reference image. These boundaries
were also traced using the standard atlas of Talairach and Tournoux (1988). For this a priori search, a corrected probability
threshold of p < 0.05 was used. For the whole-brain
post hoc analysis, a corrected probability threshold of
p < 0.005 was used. Only clusters showing a spatial
extent of at least 10 contiguous voxels were kept for image analysis.
| |
RESULTS |
Behavioral data
Phenomenologically, the viewing of the erotic film excerpts in
both the sexual arousal and attempted inhibition conditions induced a
transient state of sexual arousal in all subjects. The mean level of
reported sexual arousal was significantly higher in the sexual arousal
condition (mean = 5; range, 3-8) than in the inhibition condition
(mean = 2; range, 1-4) (p < 0.005). For both experimental conditions, the viewing of the erotic film excerpts did not produce changes in the emotional state other than sexual arousal. Likewise, in both of these conditions, the viewing of the
emotionally neutral film excerpts did not generate primary emotional
responses. Furthermore, the strategy questionnaire indicated that, in
the attempted inhibition condition, most subjects succeeded at
distancing themselves from the erotic stimuli, i.e., at becoming a
detached observer.
fMRI data
A priori search
When the brain activity associated with the viewing of the
emotionally neutral film excerpts was subtracted from that associated with the viewing of the erotic film clips in the sexual arousal condition, significant BOLD signal increases were found in the right
amygdala, the right anterior temporal pole [Brodmann area (BA) 38],
and the hypothalamus (Fig. 1, Table
1). In addition, when the brain activity
associated with the viewing of the emotionally neutral film excerpts
was subtracted from that associated with the viewing of the erotic film
clips in the attempted inhibition condition, significant loci of
activation were noted in the right superior frontal gyrus (BA 10) and
the right anterior cingulate gyrus (BA 32) (Fig.
2, Table 1). No significant loci of
activation were detected in the amygdalas, the anterior temporal polar
region, and the hypothalamus (even for a low height threshold value of p < 0.1, uncorrected). With regard to individual data,
the same pattern was found; that is, right prefrontal activation was
seen in all 10 subjects, whereas no activation was noted in the
amygdala and the hypothalamus, and activation in the anterior temporal pole was noted in only one subject.
View larger version (63K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 1.
Statistical activation maps are shown for
limbic-paralimbic structures defined a priori. Images
are coronal sections for the data averaged across subjects. The right
hemisphere of the brain corresponds to the right side of
the image. In the Sexual Arousal condition, greater
activation during the viewing of erotic film excerpts relative to the
viewing of emotionally neutral film excerpts was noted in the right
amygdala (A), right anterior temporal pole
(B), and hypothalamus (C).
In the Attempted Inhibition condition, no significant
loci of activation were seen in the amygdalas
(D), anterior temporal polar region
(E), and hypothalamus
(F).
|
|
View larger version (32K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Figure 2.
Statistical activation maps showing peaks of
activation in prefrontal cortical regions defined a
priori during the Attempted Inhibition
condition. Images are coronal sections for the data averaged
across subjects. The right hemisphere of the brain corresponds to the
right side of the image. Significant loci of activation
were noted in the right superior frontal gyrus
(A) and right anterior cingulate gyrus
(B).
|
|
Whole-brain post hoc analysis
When the brain activity associated with the viewing of
the emotionally neutral film excerpts was subtracted from that
associated with the viewing of the erotic film clips in the sexual
arousal condition, significant BOLD signal increases were seen in the left middle occipital gyrus (BA 19), the right superior occipital gyrus
(BA 19), the right inferior temporal gyrus (BA 37), the left
cerebellum, and the superior parietal lobule (BA 7), bilaterally (Table
2). Moreover, when the brain activity
associated with the viewing of the emotionally neutral film excerpts
was subtracted from that associated with the viewing of the erotic film
clips in the attempted inhibition condition, significant loci of
activation were found in the left middle occipital gyrus (BA 19), the
right inferior and superior occipital gyri (BA 19), the left superior occipital gyrus (BA 19), the left inferior frontal gyrus (BA 44), and
the superior parietal lobule (BA 7), bilaterally (Table 2).
| |
DISCUSSION |
In agreement with the results of a previous study by our group
(Karama et al., 2001), the viewing of erotic film excerpts, in
the sexual arousal condition, produced a significant activation of the
right amygdala, right anterior temporal pole (BA 38), and hypothalamus.
These findings fit with the various lines of evidence suggesting that
the amygdala plays a pivotal role in the evaluation of the emotional
significance of stimuli (for review, see Lane and Nadel, 2000), that
the hypothalamus is a key brain structure implicated in the
neuroendocrine and autonomic expression of emotion (Carter, 1998), and
that the anterior temporal pole is involved in the imparting of
emotional color to subjective experience (Mesulam, 1985). In light of
the anatomic projections that the central nucleus of the amygdala sends
to the hypothalamus, and the basolateral nuclei of the amygdala sends
to the temporal pole (Martin, 1996), it appears conceivable that in the
sexual arousal condition, the right amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the
right anterior temporal pole are functional components of a neural
circuit subserving the processing of the erotic visual stimuli. Within
such a network, we surmise that, first, the right amygdala participated
in the evaluation of the emotional content of the complex perceptual information associated with the visual processing of the erotic film
excerpts. Second, this brain structure sent a message to the
hypothalamus. Such modulation of the hypothalamic activity then led to
sexual arousal (Sachs and Meisel, 1984). Third, for this physiological
arousal to become fully conscious, in addition to sending outputs to
the hypothalamus, the amygdala sent, in parallel, a message to the
right anterior temporal pole. Such a role for this brain region concurs
with recent work showing that this paralimbic associative cortical area
is correlated with attending to one's own emotional experience (Lane,
2000).
The results of the attempted inhibition condition revealed that the
volitional inhibitory action produced by the male subjects, to decrease
the intensity of the sexual arousal produced by the erotic film
excerpts, was associated with activation peaks in BA 10 of the right
dorsolateral PFC (superior frontal gyrus) and BA 32 of the
right ACC. Contrary to the pattern of brain activity seen in the
sexual arousal condition, in the attempted inhibition condition, no
significant loci of activation were noted in the amygdalas, the
anterior temporal polar region, and the hypothalamus (even for a low
height threshold value of p < 0.1, uncorrected). Furthermore, the analysis of individual data revealed the same pattern,
i.e., no significant loci of activation was found in the amygdala, the
anterior temporal polar region, and the hypothalamus whenever the right
superior frontal gyrus and right anterior cingulate gyrus were
activated. These findings provide some support for the hypothesis that
the dorsolateral PFC, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus participate in
a neural circuit involved in emotional self-regulation (Davidson et
al., 2000). They are also consistent with the results of a recent
functional brain imaging study showing that a cognitive task, such as
choosing labels that identify the emotional expression of faces,
correlated with simultaneous increased regional cerebral blood flow
(rCBF) in the right prefrontal cortex and decreased rCBF in the
amygdalas (Hariri et al., 2000). In other respects, these results are
consistent with findings indicating that the dorsolateral PFC is
implicated in metacognitive/executive top-down processes, which refer
to the ability to monitor and control the information processing
necessary to produce voluntary action (Flavell, 1979). These results
also accord with the view that, by virtue of its anatomic connections
with brain regions implicated in the modulation of autonomic and
endocrine functions, such as the amygdala, hypothalamus, and
orbitofrontal PFC, the rostral-ventral affective subdivision of the ACC
is primarily involved in the evaluation of emotional and motivational
information and in the regulation of emotional responses (Vogt et al.,
1992; Devinsky et al., 1995; Bush et al., 2000).
The whole-brain post hoc analysis revealed that in addition
to producing activation in the right amygdala, right anterior temporal
pole, and hypothalamus, the sexual arousal condition also induced
significant activation in the inferotemporal cortex, the extrastriate
visual cortex, the cerebellum, and the superior parietal lobule.
Moreover, in addition to producing activation in the right superior
frontal gyrus and the right anterior cingulate gyrus, the attempted
inhibition condition was also associated with activation in the
extrastriate visual cortex, the superior parietal lobule, and the left
inferior frontal gyrus.
Clinical neuropsychological data have demonstrated that cerebellar
lesions can produce a blunting of effect (Schmahmann and Sherman,
1998). In light of these data, and on the basis of the fact that
cerebellar activation has often been noted in functional brain imaging
studies of emotion generated by emotionally laden visual stimuli, one
could argue that the cerebellar activation found here suggests that the
cerebellum is somehow related to the "feeling" experience
associated with sexual arousal. Further studies are awaited to tackle
this intriguing question.
With respect to the inferotemporal cortex, the results of a recent
magnetoencephalography study (Streit et al., 1999) suggest that
this cortical region is involved in the recognition of the various
facial expressions of emotions. Given these findings and the nature of
the erotic film excerpts used in this study, it seems plausible that
the inferotemporal activation seen here may have something to do with
such a function.
The activation of the extrastriate visual cortex is in keeping with the
results of several functional neuroimaging studies having shown that,
when compared with neutral visual stimuli, emotionally laden visual
stimuli elicit increased activation in this brain area (Lane et al.,
1997, 1999; Reiman et al., 1997; Beauregard et al., 1998; Lang et al.,
1998). Assuming that viewing erotic stimuli automatically leads to
increased attentional tapping, the extrastriate cortical activation
noted here is consistent with the hypothesis that attention to visual
stimuli can modulate neural activity in the extrastriate visual cortex
(Corbetta et al., 1991; O'Craven et al., 1997; Büchel et al.,
1998; Chawla et al., 1999). With respect to this issue, the results of
a recent positron emission tomography study (Lane et al., 1999) suggest that the amygdala may exert modulatory effects in extrastriate visual
cortex during visual processing of highly arousing emotional stimuli.
Such a neuromodulatory action could constitute an evolutionary beneficial trait permitting more efficient attention to stimuli having
a strong survival value. Along the same lines, the activation noted
here in the superior parietal lobule, a brain region implicated in
sustained attention to emotionally neutral stimuli (Le et al., 1998),
might derive from the impact of emotional arousal on attentional mechanisms that are grounded neurally in this area of the parietal lobe.
The left inferior frontal activation seen in the attempted inhibition
condition was localized in a portion of Broca's area (BA 44).
Functional brain imaging techniques have shown that this cortical
region is part of a neural circuit implementing the subvocal rehearsal
component of verbal working memory (Smith and Jonides, 1998). In the
present context, it is possible that the activation noted in this
prefrontal cortical area was related to the internal speech generated
by the subjects during their attempt to inhibit the sexual arousal
associated with the visual processing of the erotic film excerpts.
The normal functioning of the neural network linking the right
dorsolateral PFC, right ACC, right amygdala, right anterior temporal
pole, and hypothalamus may constitute a fundamental psychobiological mechanism through which human beings can consciously and willfully self-regulate their emotional responses, using various metacognitive processes. From a phylogenetic perspective, such a circuit may implement one of the most remarkable human faculties that has emerged
in the course of human evolution. At both an individual and a
collective level, a defect of this neural circuitry (or of an analogous
network involving a prefrontal cortical modulation of negative
emotional responses associated with activation in limbic structures)
may have disastrous psychological and social consequences.
Ontologically, the present findings suggest that humans have the
capacity to influence the electrochemical dynamics of their brains, by
voluntarily changing the nature of the mind processes unfolding in the
psychological space.
Last, we acknowledge some of the limitations that characterize the
present study. First, the restriction to one arousal state makes it
difficult to argue for the specificity, or generality, of the brain
findings for both the sexual arousal and attempted inhibition
conditions. Second, because there was no experimental condition in
which subjects had to voluntarily increase their arousal state, it
remains possible that the activations seen in the attempted inhibition
condition reflected an effort to modulate the sexual arousal induced by
the erotic stimuli rather than an actual inhibition of this arousal.
| |
FOOTNOTES |
Received March 8, 2001; revised June 4, 2001; accepted June 28, 2001.
This work was supported by grants from National Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and Département de
Radiologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université de
Montréal to M.B. We thank the staff of the Département de
Radiologie, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal
(CHUM), Hôpital Notre-Dame, for their skillful technical assistance.
Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Mario Beauregard, Centre de
Recherche, Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, 4565 Queen Mary Road, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H3W lW5.
E-mail: beauregm{at}magellan.umontreal.ca.
This article is published in
The Journal of Neuroscience, Rapid Communications Section,
which publishes brief, peer-reviewed papers online, not in print. Rapid
Communications are posted online approximately one month earlier than
they would appear if printed. They are listed in the Table of Contents
of the next open issue of JNeurosci. Cite this article as:
JNeurosci, 2001, 21:RC165 (1-6). The
publication date is the date of posting online at
www.jneurosci.org.
| |
REFERENCES |
-
Beauregard M,
Leroux J-M,
Bergman S,
Arzoumanian Y,
Beaudoin G,
Bourgouin P,
Stip E
(1998)
The functional neuroanatomy of major depression: an fMRI study using an emotional activation paradigm.
NeuroReport
9:3253-3258.
-
Büchel C,
Josephs O,
Rees G,
Turner R,
Frith CD,
Friston KJ
(1998)
The functional anatomy of attention to visual motion: a functional MRI study.
Brain
121:1281-1294.
-
Bush G,
Luu P,
Posner MI
(2000)
Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex.
Trends Cogn Sci
4:215-222.
-
Carter S
(1998)
Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love.
Psychoneuroendocrinology
23:779-818.
-
Chawla D,
Rees G,
Friston KJ
(1999)
The physiological basis of attentional modulation in extrastriate visual areas.
Nat Neurosci
2:671-676.
-
Corbetta M,
Miezin FM,
Dobmeyer S,
Shulman GL,
Petersen SE
(1991)
Selective and divided attention during visual discriminations of shape, color, and speed: functional anatomy by positron emission tomography.
J Neurosci
11:2383-2402.
-
Davidson RJ,
Putnam KM,
Larson CL
(2000)
Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation: a possible prelude to violence.
Science
289:591-594.
-
Devinsky O,
Morrell MJ,
Vogt BA
(1995)
Contributions of anterior cingulate cortex to behaviour.
Brain
118:279-306.
-
Flavell JH
(1979)
Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive development inquiry.
Am Psychol
34:906-911.
-
Gross JJ
(1999)
Emotion regulation: past, present, future.
Cogn Emotion
13:551-573.
-
Hariri A,
Bookheimer SY,
Mazziotta JC
(2000)
Modulating emotional responses: effects of a neocortical network on the limbic system.
NeuroReport
11:43-48.
-
Jackson DC,
Malmstadt JR,
Larson CL,
Davidson RJ
(2000)
Suppression and enhancement of emotional responses to unpleasant pictures.
Psychophysiology
37:515-522.
-
Karama S, Lecours AR, Leroux J-M, Bourgouin P, Beaudoin S, Beauregard
M 2001 Areas of brain activation in males and females during
viewing of erotic film excerpts. Hum Brain Mapp, in press.
-
Lane RD
(2000)
Neural correlates of conscious emotional experience.
In: Cognitive neuroscience of emotion (Lane RD,
Nadel L,
eds), pp 345-370. New York: Oxford UP.
-
Lane RD,
Nadel L
(2000)
In: Cognitive neuroscience of emotion. New York: Oxford UP.
-
Lane RD,
Reiman EM,
Bradley MM,
Lang PJ,
Ahern GL,
Davidson RJ,
Schwartz GE
(1997)
Neuroanatomical correlates of pleasant and unpleasant emotion.
Neuropsychologia
35:1437-1444.
-
Lane RD,
Chua PM-L,
Dolan RJ
(1999)
Common effects of emotional valence, arousal and attention on neural activation during visual processing of pictures.
Neuropsychologia
37:989-997.
-
Lang PJ,
Bradley MM,
Fitzsimmons JR,
Cuthbert BN,
Scott JD,
Moulder B,
Nangia V
(1998)
Emotional arousal and activation of the visual cortex: an fMRI analysis.
Psychophysiology
35:199-210.
-
Langston CA
(1994)
Capitalizing on and coping with daily-life events: expressive responses to positive events.
J Pers Soc Psychol
67:1112-1125.
-
Le TH,
Pardo JV,
Hu X
(1998)
4-T-fMRI study of nonspatial shifting of selective attention: cerebellar and parietal contributions.
J Neurophysiol
79:1535-1548.
-
Martin JH
(1996)
In: Neuroanatomy. Stanford: Appleton & Lange.
-
Masters JC
(1991)
Strategies and mechanisms for the personal and social control of emotion.
In: The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (Garber J,
Dodge KA,
eds), pp 182-207. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP.
-
Mesulam M-M
(1985)
Patterns in behavioural neuroanatomy: Association areas, the limbic system, and hemispheric specialization.
In: Principles of behavioral neurology (Mesulam M-M,
ed), pp 1-70. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.
-
Nauta WJH
(1971)
The problem of the frontal lobe: a reinterpretation.
J Psychiatr Res
8:167-187.
-
O'Craven KM,
Rosen BR,
Kwong KK,
Treisman A,
Savoy RL
(1997)
Voluntary attention modulates fMRI activity in human MT-MST.
Neuron
18:591-598.
-
Parrott WG
(1993)
Beyond hedonism: motives for inhibiting good moods and for maintaining bad moods.
In: Handbook of mental control (Wegner DM,
Pennebaker JW,
eds), pp 278-308. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
-
Plutchik R
(1994)
In: The psychology and biology of emotion. New York: Harper Collins.
-
Reiman EM,
Lane RD,
Ahern GL,
Schwartz GE,
Davidson RJ,
Friston KJ,
Yun L-S,
Chen K
(1997)
Neuroanatomical correlates of externally and internally generated human emotion.
Am J Psychiatry
154:918-925.
-
Sachs BD,
Meisel RL
(1984)
The physiology of male sexual behavior.
In: Physiology of reproduction (Knobil E,
Neill JD,
eds), pp 3-105. New York: Raven.
-
Schmahmann JD,
Sherman JC
(1998)
The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome.
Brain
121:561-579.
-
Smith EE,
Jonides J
(1998)
Neuroimaging analyses of human working memory.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
95:12061-12068.
-
Streit M,
Ionnides AA,
Liu L,
Wolver W,
Dammers J,
Gross J,
Gaebel W,
Muller-Gartner HW
(1999)
Neurophysiological correlates of the recognition of facial expressions of emotion as revealed by magnetoencephalography.
Brain Res Cogn Brain Res
7:481-491.
-
Talairach J,
Tournoux P
(1988)
In: Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain. Stuttgart: Thieme.
-
Tucker DM,
Luu P,
Pribram KH
(1995)
Social and emotional self-regulation.
Ann NY Acad Sci
769:213-239.
-
Vogt BA,
Finch DM,
Olson CR
(1992)
Functional heterogeneity in cingulate cortex: the anterior executive and posterior evaluative regions.
Cereb Cortex
2:435-443.
Copyright © Society for Neuroscience 0270-6474//$05.00/0
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
|
|
 
S. Anders, F. Eippert, S. Wiens, N. Birbaumer, M. Lotze, and D. Wildgruber
When seeing outweighs feeling: a role for prefrontal cortex in passive control of negative affect in blindsight
Brain,
November 1, 2009;
132(11):
3021 - 3031.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. R. Goldin, T. Manber, S. Hakimi, T. Canli, and J. J. Gross
Neural Bases of Social Anxiety Disorder: Emotional Reactivity and Cognitive Regulation During Social and Physical Threat
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
February 1, 2009;
66(2):
170 - 180.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
G.-J. Wang, N. D. Volkow, F. Telang, M. Jayne, Y. Ma, K. Pradhan, W. Zhu, C. T. Wong, P. K. Thanos, A. Geliebter, et al.
Evidence of gender differences in the ability to inhibit brain activation elicited by food stimulation
PNAS,
January 27, 2009;
106(4):
1249 - 1254.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Lerner, A. Bagic, T. Hanakawa, E. A. Boudreau, F. Pagan, Z. Mari, W. Bara-Jimenez, M. Aksu, S. Sato, D. L. Murphy, et al.
Involvement of Insula and Cingulate Cortices in Control and Suppression of Natural Urges
Cereb Cortex,
January 1, 2009;
19(1):
218 - 223.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
S.-h. Hu, N. Wei, Q.-D. Wang, L.-q. Yan, E.-Q. Wei, M.-M. Zhang, J.-B. Hu, M.-l. Huang, W.-h. Zhou, and Y. Xu
Patterns of Brain Activation during Visually Evoked Sexual Arousal Differ between Homosexual and Heterosexual Men
AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.,
November 1, 2008;
29(10):
1890 - 1896.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
R.J.R Blair
The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex: functional contributions and dysfunction in psychopathy
Phil Trans R Soc B,
August 12, 2008;
363(1503):
2557 - 2565.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. J. Banks, K. T. Eddy, M. Angstadt, P. J. Nathan, and K. L. Phan
Amygdala frontal connectivity during emotion regulation
Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci,
December 1, 2007;
2(4):
303 - 312.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Wang, M. Korczykowski, H. Rao, Y. Fan, J. Pluta, R. C. Gur, B. S. McEwen, and J. A. Detre
Gender difference in neural response to psychological stress
Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci,
September 1, 2007;
2(3):
227 - 239.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. E. Depue, T. Curran, and M. T. Banich
Prefrontal Regions Orchestrate Suppression of Emotional Memories via a Two-Phase Process
Science,
July 13, 2007;
317(5835):
215 - 219.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Schiltz, J. Witzel, G. Northoff, K. Zierhut, U. Gubka, H. Fellmann, J. Kaufmann, C. Tempelmann, C. Wiebking, and B. Bogerts
Brain Pathology in Pedophilic Offenders: Evidence of Volume Reduction in the Right Amygdala and Related Diencephalic Structures
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
June 1, 2007;
64(6):
737 - 746.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. E Fisher, A. Aron, and L. L Brown
Romantic love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice
Phil Trans R Soc B,
December 29, 2006;
361(1476):
2173 - 2186.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. D. Volkow, G.-J. Wang, H. Begleiter, B. Porjesz, J. S. Fowler, F. Telang, C. Wong, Y. Ma, J. Logan, R. Goldstein, et al.
High levels of dopamine d2 receptors in unaffected members of alcoholic families: possible protective factors.
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
September 1, 2006;
63(9):
999 - 1008.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Sinha, M. Garcia, P. Paliwal, M. J. Kreek, and B. J. Rounsaville
Stress-induced cocaine craving and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses are predictive of cocaine relapse outcomes.
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
March 1, 2006;
63(3):
324 - 331.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. L. Phan, J. C. Britton, S. F. Taylor, L. M. Fig, and I. Liberzon
Corticolimbic Blood Flow During Nontraumatic Emotional Processing in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Arch Gen Psychiatry,
February 1, 2006;
63(2):
184 - 192.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. D. Woolley, M. L. Gorno-Tempini, K. Werner, K. P. Rankin, P. Ekman, R. W. Levenson, and B. L. Miller
The autonomic and behavioral profile of emotional dysregulation
Neurology,
November 9, 2004;
63(9):
1740 - 1743.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. A. Rosenkranz, H. Moore, and A. A. Grace
The Prefrontal Cortex Regulates Lateral Amygdala Neuronal Plasticity and Responses to Previously Conditioned Stimuli
J. Neurosci.,
December 3, 2003;
23(35):
11054 - 11064.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. I. Posner, M. K. Rothbart, N. Vizueta, K. N. Levy, D. E. Evans, K. M. Thomas, and J. F. Clarkin
Attentional mechanisms of borderline personality disorder
PNAS,
December 10, 2002;
99(25):
16366 - 16370.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Oya, H. Kawasaki, M. A. Howard III, and R. Adolphs
Electrophysiological Responses in the Human Amygdala Discriminate Emotion Categories of Complex Visual Stimuli
J. Neurosci.,
November 1, 2002;
22(21):
9502 - 9512.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Canli, J. E. Desmond, Z. Zhao, and J. D. E. Gabrieli
Sex differences in the neural basis of emotional memories
PNAS,
August 6, 2002;
99(16):
10789 - 10794.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
