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The Journal of Neuroscience, January 1, 2002, 22(1):193-199
Mice Deficient for Both Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptor 1 (CRFR1) and CRFR2 Have an Impaired Stress Response and Display Sexually
Dichotomous Anxiety-Like Behavior
Tracy L.
Bale1,
Roberto
Picetti2,
Angelo
Contarino2,
George F.
Koob2,
Wylie W.
Vale1, and
Kuo-Fen
Lee1
1 Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology,
The Salk Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, and
2 Department of Neuropharmacology, The Scripps Research
Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
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ABSTRACT |
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and its family of peptides are
critical coordinators of homeostasis whose actions are mediated through
their receptors, CRF receptor 1 (CRFR1) and CRFR2, found throughout the
CNS and periphery. The phenotypes of mice deficient in either CRFR1 or
CRFR2 demonstrate the critical role these receptors play. CRFR1-mutant
mice have an impaired stress response and display decreased
anxiety-like behavior, whereas CRFR2-mutant mice are hypersensitive to
stress and display increased anxiety-like behavior. To further
elucidate the roles of both CRF receptors and determine their
interaction in behaviors, we have generated mice deficient in both
CRFR1 and CRFR2. The behavioral phenotype of these mice demonstrates a
novel role of the mother's genotype on development of pup anxiety. We
have found that although the female double-mutant mice display
anxiolytic-like behavior, the male double-mutant mice show
significantly more anxiety-like behavior compared with the females. We
have also determined that the dam's CRFR2 genotype affects the
anxiety-like behavior of the male mice, such that a pup born to a
heterozygous or mutant dam displays significantly more anxiety-like
behavior regardless of that pup's genotype. Double-mutant mice also
display an even greater impairment of their
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress than
that of the CRFR1-mutant mice. CRF mRNA levels are elevated in CRFR1-
and double-mutant mice, and urocortin III and vasopressin mRNA levels
are increased in CRFR2- and double-mutant mice. These results indicate
that both CRFR1 and CRFR2 have critical roles in gene regulation and
the maintenance of homeostasis in response to stress.
Key words:
corticotropin-releasing factor; urocortin; urocortin III; maternal genotype; anxiety; stress
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INTRODUCTION |
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)
is a critical coordinator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)
axis and is an essential component in mediation of behavioral responses
to stress. The actions of CRF and urocortin (Ucn), a CRF-related
peptide, in the regulation of homeostasis (Vale et al., 1981 ; Vaughan
et al., 1995) are mediated via activation of their two known receptors, CRF receptor 1 (CRFR1) (Chen et al., 1993) or CRFR2 (Kishimoto et al.,
1995; Lovenberg et al., 1995; Perrin et al., 1995; Stenzel et al.,
1995). These receptors share ~71% amino acid sequence similarity
(Grigoriadis et al., 1996) and are distinct both in their localization
in the CNS and periphery (Potter et al., 1994; Chalmers et al., 1995)
and in their binding affinities for CRF and Ucn. Ucn binds with an
almost 40-fold higher affinity for CRFR2 than does CRF. While CRFR1 is
abundantly expressed in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, medial septum,
and anterior pituitary, CRFR2 is predominantly found in the lateral
septum, ventromedial hypothalamus, and choroid plexus. In the
periphery, CRFR2 is the predominant receptor and is widely distributed
in the heart, skeletal muscle, vasculature, and gastrointestinal tract
(Kishimoto et al., 1995; Lovenberg et al., 1995; Perrin et al., 1995;
Stenzel et al., 1995).
The CRF receptors are also distinct in the phenotypes produced by null
deletion in mice. Mice deficient for CRFR1 display decreased
anxiety-like behavior and have an impaired stress response (Smith et
al., 1998; Timpl et al., 1998). These mice fail to display the
characteristic HPA-axis response to restraint stress
attributable to agenesis of the zona fasciculata region of their
adrenal gland resulting from a deficiency of ACTH during development.
Behaviorally, the CRFR1-mutant mice display decreased anxiety-like
behavior when examined on an elevated plus maze (EPM) and in the
light/dark emergence task (Smith et al., 1998). CRF levels are
increased in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) in the CRFR1-deficient
mice, indicating a diminished negative feedback response
attributable to decreased corticosterone levels.
In direct opposition to the CRFR1-mutant mice, CRFR2-mutant mice
display increased anxiety-like behavior and are hypersensitive to
stress (Bale et al., 2000; Coste et al., 2000). These mice respond not
only more rapidly to stress but also with greater amplitude, with
mutant mouse corticosterone levels doubling control levels after 10 min
of restraint (Bale et al., 2000). The CRFR2-mutant mice display
increased anxiety-like behavior when examined on the elevated plus maze
and the open-field test (Bale et al., 2000). CRF mRNA levels are
increased in the null-mutant mice in the amygdala, a nucleus important
in transduction of stress and anxiety signals (King and Meyer, 1958;
Allen and Allen, 1975; Beaulieu et al., 1986; Liang et al., 1992). Ucn
mRNA in the Edinger-Westphal (EW) nucleus is also increased in the
CRFR2-mutant mice. The reported phenotype for these mice contains some
discrepancies, because one group found a trend in anxiety levels in the
mutant mice that did not reach significance (Coste et al., 2000),
whereas another group only detected anxiety-like behavior in male but
not female mutant mice (Kishimoto et al., 2000). Differences in
breeding schemes and mouse strains have been proposed to explain the
variation in results obtained for these mice.
To further elucidate specific roles of both CRF receptors in activation
and modulation of stress and anxiety as well as maintenance of
homeostasis, we have generated mice deficient in both CRFR1 and CRFR2.
These mice have been analyzed in comparison with the single CRFR1- or
CRFR2-mutant mice for anxiety-like behaviors, stress responses, and
gene expression. We have also determined mRNA expression levels for the
new CRF-family ligand Ucn III (Hsu and Hsueh, 2001; Lewis et al., 2001)
and vasopressin (VP) in these mice.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
Generation of CRFR1/CRFR2 double-mutant mice. To
produce mice deficient for both CRF receptors, null mutant CRFR2 female
mice (Bale et al., 2000) on a mixed 129:C57BL/6 background were bred to
null mutant CRFR1 male mice (Smith et al., 1998) on the same mixed
background, to produce offspring heterozygous for both genes. Male and
female heterozygous mice were then bred to produce control, CRFR1-,
CRFR2-, and double-mutant mice. All mice referred to as CRFR1- or
CRFR2-mutant mice are null mutant for the specified gene and wild type
for the alternate gene.
Blood collection and hormone analysis. Basal hormone samples
were obtained at 08:00 A.M. For ACTH and corticosterone analyses after stress, individually housed 16- to 20-week-old male control and
double-mutant mice were exposed to 2, 5, or 10 min of restraint stress
in a 50 ml conical tube (plastic tube with the bottom removed) (Bale et
al., 2000). In a separate experiment, 16- to 20-week-old male control,
CRFR1-, CRFR2-, and double-mutant mice were exposed to 10 min of
restraint stress as described above to compare single receptor
deficiencies with the absence of both known CRF receptors in the HPA
axis stress response. Each mouse was only bled once. All samples were
collected by retro-orbital eye bleed from unanesthetized animals within
30 sec of removal from the conical tube after the restraint or removal
from their cage for basal samples. Plasma samples were immediately
centrifuged and stored at  80°C until the assay was conducted. The
ACTH assay (Nichols Institute Diagnostics, San Juan Capistrano,
CA) used 50 µl of plasma and the corticosterone assay (ICN
Biomedicals, Costa Mesa, CA) used 5 µl of plasma as measured
in duplicate by radioimmunoassay kits.
Histology of adrenal and pituitary glands. Adrenal and
pituitary gland tissues from 16- to 20-week-old male mice were fixed in
neutral-buffered formalin (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) for 48 hr, dehydrated
in 70% ethanol, and embedded in paraffin. Tissues were sectioned at 8 µm thickness, deparaffinized, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin
(H&E).
Anxiety-like behavioral testing. Female and male mice were
used in anxiety experiments at 16-20 weeks of age. All mice of the
same sex were related within each experiment. During the week before
the experiment, animals were handled on alternate days. Animals were
individually housed under conditions of a regular 12 hr light/dark
cycle (lights on at 6:00 A.M., lights off at 6:00 P.M.) for 15 d
before testing. Testing was performed as described previously (Smith et
al., 1998; Bale et al., 2000). For comparisons of double-mutant mice
with single-mutant mice, only CRFR1 mutants were tested. Because the
anxiety testing requires either individual or group housing depending
on the hypothesized outcome for anxiety levels, preliminary data
indicated that the double-mutant mice phenotype was more similar to the
CRFR1-mutant mice. Thus, we proceeded with individually housing the
mice for these experiments. Because the CRFR2-mutant mice require group
housing for anxiety testing, we did not include this group in these
tests. All data sets were analyzed by ANOVA with a Newman-Keuls
multiple comparison post hoc test.
EPM. The plus-maze apparatus was made of
black Plexiglas and had two open arms (30 × 5 cm) and two
enclosed arms of the same size with walls 30 cm high. The apparatus was
elevated 30 cm above the ground. The arms were connected by a central
square (5 × 5 cm) and thus the maze formed a plus sign. A 25 W
lamp placed above the apparatus provided a 6 lux light level in the
open arms. Background white noise was set at 52 dB. All testing was
conducted during the light phase of the light/dark cycle. Mice were
habituated to the experimental room for 1 hr before the behavioral
testing, and the subjects were individually tested in 5 min sessions.
Each mouse was placed on the center platform facing an open arm to initiate the test session. Behaviors scored were the number of open-
and closed-arm entries and the time spent on the various sections of
the maze. Arm entries were defined as entry of all four paws into the
arm. Total-arm entries were taken as an index of locomotor activity in
the plus maze. A camera mounted above the apparatus allowed the
observation and scoring of the animal's behavior on a video monitor
placed in an adjacent room. At the end of the test, the number of
entries into and the time spent on the open arms were expressed as a
percentage of the total number of arm entries and test duration, respectively.
Open-field test. The open-field apparatus consists of a
white Plexiglas box (50 × 50 × 22 cm) with 16 squares
(12 × 12 cm) painted on the floor (12 outer and 4 inner squares).
A lamp directed to the center of the field provides a 120 lux
illumination on the floor. Testing was conducted during the dark phase
of the light/dark cycle in a room with constant background white noise (52 dB). Each mouse was placed in the center of the apparatus to
initiate a 10 min test session. Time (in seconds) spent in the inner
squares and time (in seconds) spent grooming were quantified from a
video recording.
In situ hybridization. In situ hybridization was
performed on male brain tissue as described previously (Bale et al.,
2000); n = 5. Riboprobes for Ucn, CRF, and Ucn III were
generated from DNA constructs made in our laboratory. The VP probe was
provided by D. Richter (Institute of Cell Biology and Clinical
Neurobiology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany). Slides
were dipped in NTB2 liquid nuclear emulsion (Eastman Kodak,
Rochester, NY) (diluted 1:1 with water), exposed for 5-10 d,
photographically processed, counter-stained with hematoxylin, and coverslipped.
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RESULTS |
HPA axis hormone analysis
Double-mutant mice display diminished HPA responses to stress. To
examine the response of the HPA axis to stress, male double-mutant and
control mice were exposed to a restraint stress of varying lengths of
time. Plasma concentrations of ACTH and corticosterone were measured in
samples collected after each of the 2, 5, or 10 min restraint periods.
ACTH and corticosterone levels in control mice were significantly more
elevated after all time points of the restraint stress than the hormone
levels of the double-mutant mice (Fig.
1A,B). To compare the
HPA response to stress of the double-mutant mice with the CRFR1 or
CRFR2 single-mutant mice, males were exposed to 10 min of restraint
stress. Plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels for double-mutant mice
were significantly lower than those obtained for CRFR1 single-mutant
mice (Fig. 1C,D). As predicted, both CRFR1- and
double-mutant hormone levels were substantially lower than control or
CRFR2-mutant mouse levels. Basal morning ACTH and corticosterone levels
were also measured. No differences were found in ACTH levels between
control, CRFR1-, CRFR2-, and double-mutant mice (Fig.
1E). Corticosterone levels were significantly lower
in CRFR1- and double-mutant mice compared with control and CRFR2-mutant
levels (Fig. 1F). Double-mutant corticosterone levels
were significantly lower than CRFR1-mutant levels [Fig. 1,
a was significantly different from b and
c (p < 0.01) and b was
significantly different from c (p < 0.05)].
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Figure 1.
Impairment of the HPA axis response to stress in
double-mutant animals. Time course of restraint stress effects on ACTH
(A) and corticosterone (B)
plasma levels at 9:00 A.M. (n = 8 for wild-type
mice, white bars; n = 7 for
double-mutant mice, black bars; mean ± SEM).
**Significantly different from wild-type controls at the same time
point; p < 0.001 by ANOVA, Scheffe's post
hoc test. Comparison of ACTH (C) and
corticosterone (D) plasma levels in control,
CRFR1-, CRFR2-, and CRFR1/2-mutant mice after 10 min of restraint
stress (n = 4; mean ± SEM;
*p < 0.05 by ANOVA, Fisher's post
hoc test). Basal ACTH (E) and
corticosterone (F) plasma levels (taken by
retro-orbital eyebleed at 08:00 A.M.) for wild-type, CRFR1-, CRFR2-,
and CRFR1/2-mutant male mice. No statistical differences were found
between groups for ACTH levels. For corticosterone, a
was significantly different from b and c
(p < 0.01) and b was
significantly different from c
(p < 0.05 by ANOVA, Scheffe's post
hoc test) (n = 4 for wild-type and CRFR2
mice; n = 3 for CRFR1 and CRFR1/2 mice; mean ± SEM).
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Histology of adrenal and pituitary glands
To determine the effect of a deficiency for both CRFR1 and CRFR2
on pituitary and adrenal gland development, tissues from adult male
double-mutant and control mice were sectioned and stained with
hematoxylin and eosin. A pronounced atrophy of the adrenal gland from
the double-mutant mouse was detected resulting from hypoplasia of the
zona fasciculata region of the adrenal cortex. The reduced size of the
adrenal gland as well as agenesis of the cortex was similar to that
seen in the CRFR1-mutant mouse (Fig. 2).
Histology of the pituitary gland revealed no gross anatomical abnormalities (data not shown).
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Figure 2.
Double-mutant adrenal glands have atrophied
cortex, similar to CRFR1 adrenal glands. H&E staining of the adrenal
gland from double-mutant (A), CRFR1-mutant
(B), and wild-type (C) mice
is shown. Note that there is no difference in adrenal gland cortex size
between the CRFR1-mutant mice and the double-mutant mice.
C, Cortex; M, medulla.
n = 3. Scale bar, 50 µm.
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EPM
Results from the anxiety tests revealed a sexual dichotomy in
anxiety-like behaviors in these mice. Female double-mutant mice spent
more time on the open arms of the plus-maze apparatus and entered these
open arms more frequently than did wild-type mice; these female mice
were similar to the CRFR1-mutant mice (Fig. 3A). A significant effect was
found for both percentage of entries into the open arms
(F(2,52) = 3.183; p < 0.05) and percentage of time spent in open arms
(F(2,55) = 4.53; p < 0.05). Overall activity as measured by total arm entries was not
different between wild-type (17.75 ± 1.29), CRFR1-mutant
(16.75 ± 3.12), or double-mutant (15.91 ± 0.90) female mice
(F(2,58) = 0.74; p = 0.48). There were no significant differences between male genotypes in
the EPM for percentage of entries into the open arms
(F(2,25) = 1.17; p = 0.33) or percentage of time spent in open arms
(F(2,26) = 0.95; p = 0.40) (Fig. 3B). Overall activity as measured by total arm entries was not different between wild-type (17.00 ± 1.41),
CRFR1-mutant (15.38 ± 2.67), or double-mutant (14.36 ± 2.15) male mice (F(2,26) = 0.46;
p = 0.64). In analyses between male and female mice, a significant difference was found between double-mutant males and females for percentage of entries into the open arms of the EPM (t(35) = 2.137; p < 0.05). No differences were detected between male and female control
mice (t(37) = 0.68; p = 0.50) or between male and female CRFR1-mutant mice
(t(10) = 0.02; p = 0.98) for percentage of entries into the open arms of the EPM.
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Figure 3.
Sexual dichotomy in anxiety-like behaviors of
double-mutant mice. Decreased anxiety-like behavior of double-mutant
animals as measured in the elevated plus maze (A, B)
test of anxiety is shown. All tests were conducted on individually
housed 16- to 20-week-old female and male mice. All results are
reported as mean ± SEM. A, Percentage of time
spent in the open arms and number of entries into the open arms were
significantly more for the female double-mutant mice
(n = 27) than for the wild-type controls
(n = 27) (*p < 0.05). Female
CRFR1-mutant mice were not significantly different from controls
(n = 4). B, Percentage of time spent
in the open arms and number of entries into the open arms were not
significantly different between male double-mutant mice
(n = 11), CRFR1-mutant mice (n = 8), and wild-type mice (n = 10).
C, Comparison of males and females on the open-field
test. Male double-mutant mice spend significantly less time in the
center of the open field than double-mutant females
(n = 10 males; n = 16 females;
*p < 0.05). No significant differences were found
between male and female wild-type mice (n = 10 males; n = 24 females; p = 0.63) or CRFR1-mutant mice (n = 8 males;
n = 5 for females; p = 0.06).
D, A significant correlation was found between the
dam's CRFR2 genotype and the male pup's anxiety-like behavior. If the
mother was heterozygous or homozygous for CRFR2 mutation, the pup,
regardless of its genotype, showed significantly more anxiety-like
behavior (as measured by time spent on the open arm of the elevated
plus maze). **Significantly different (p < 0.05). For male pups born to wild-type dams, n = 4 CRFR1-mutant mice and n = 6 wild-type mice. For
male pups born to either heterozygous or mutant dams,
n = 4 CRFR1-mutant mice, n = 11 double-mutant mice, and n = 4 wild-type mice. For
female pups born to wild-type dams, n = 3 CRFR1-mutant mice and n = 18 wild-type mice. For
female pups born to either heterozygous or mutant dams,
n = 2 CRFR1-mutant mice, n = 27 double-mutant mice, and n = 9 wild-type mice.
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Open-field test
Several parameters from the results of the open-field test confirm
the observations made in the EPM. As an indication of lower anxiety-like behavior, female CRFR1- and double-mutant mice produced fewer fecal boli during the experiment than controls
(F(2,42) = 8.41; p = 0.0008). Time spent in the center of the open-field apparatus was not
different between groups (F(2,42) = 2.14; p = 0.12). As with the EPM, the male
double-mutant mice showed no significant difference in time spent in
the center of the open field compared with control and CRFR1-mutant
male mice (F(2,25) = 1.88;
p = 0.17). However, in another parameter of anxiety
measurement, male double-mutant mice had more bouts of grooming
than either control or CRFR1-mutant male mice
(F(2,24) = 5.49; p = 0.01). Comparisons between females and males for time spent in the
center of the open field found a significant difference between male and female double-mutant mice (t(24) = 2.25; p < 0.05) but not for control mice
(t(32) = 0.49; p = 0.63) or CRFR1 mice (t(11) = 2.14;
p = 0.06) (Fig. 3C). Comparisons of male and
female mice also revealed that male double-mutant mice produced
significantly more fecal boli during the experiment than female
double-mutant mice (t(25) = 2.82;
p < 0.01). No differences were found between males and
females for control mice (t(31) = 0.75; p = 0.46) or CRFR1-mutant mice
(t(11) = 0.99; p = 0.34).
Effect of dam's genotype on anxiety-like behavior
A significant correlation was found between the dam's CRFR2
genotype and the male pup's anxiety-like behavior as detected in our
experiments. If the mother was heterozygous or homozygous for CRFR2
mutation, the pup, regardless of its genotype, showed significantly
more anxiety-like behavior (as measured by time spent on the open arm
of the elevated plus maze) (Fig. 3D). This genotype affected
male pups but did not have a significant effect on females. Although
the anxiety-like behavioral response is sexually dimorphic in the
double-mutant mice, the female mice tested for anxiety-like behaviors
were not estrous cycled. Because activity can change over the estrous
cycle, we cannot rule out a possible behavioral effect on the female
mice. The CRFR1 genotype of the dam had no effect on anxiety-like
behavior for females or males, nor did the genotype of the sire (data
not shown). Females are always removed from the male's cage before
giving birth; thus the pups have no interaction with the behavior of
the sire.
CRF, Ucn III, and VP mRNA levels are increased in the absence of
both receptors
To determine the alteration in gene expression for CRF family
ligands found in the hypothalamus as well as ligands associated with
increased HPA activity, in situ hybridization was performed. CRF mRNA levels were increased in the PVN in the absence of both CRFR1
and CRFR2. Whereas control and CRFR2-mutant mice display relatively low
levels of CRF, the double-mutant and CRFR1-mutant mice show
significantly elevated levels of expression (Fig.
4A-D). Similar to
CRFR1-mutant mice, corticosterone replacement decreased CRF levels in
the double-mutant PVN, but these levels still remained elevated
compared with control mice (Fig. 4E,F). CRF
mRNA levels are not increased in the central nucleus of the
amygdala (cAmyg) and Ucn mRNA levels are not increased in the EW
nucleus of double-mutant mice compared with control-mouse levels (data
not shown). These results for the double-mutant mice are similar to
those reported previously for CRFR1-mutant mice (Smith et al., 1998;
Timpl et al., 1998). Ucn III mRNA is dramatically increased in the
perifornical region lateral to the PVN (possibly a portion of the
magnocellular region of the lateral PVN) in the CRFR2- and
double-mutant mice (Fig. 4G-J). Lower levels of
expression were detected in the wild-type and CRFR1-mutant mice. PVN VP
mRNA levels are also increased in both CRFR2- and double-mutant mice
compared with CRFR1-mutant and control mice (Fig.
4K-N).
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Figure 4.
CRF, Ucn III, and VP mRNA levels are increased in
the absence of both receptors Silver grains by in situ
hybridization for CRF mRNA in the PVN (A-F), Ucn
III mRNA in the lateral perifornical region
(G-J), and VP in the PVN
(K-N) comparing wild-type mice (A, E, G,
K), CRFR1-mutant mice (B, H, L),
CRFR2-mutant mice (C, I, M), and double-mutant
mice (D, F, J, N) are shown. Double-mutant mice
were also treated with corticosterone (F) and
compared with wild-type mouse CRF mRNA levels
(E). Corticosterone-treated mice were given 25 µg/ml corticosterone in their drinking water for 14 d before
they were killed.
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DISCUSSION |
Mice deficient for both known CRF receptors, CRFR1 and CRFR2, were
generated and analyzed for hormonal and behavioral responses to stress.
In the absence of either known receptor, double-mutant mice display a
very small HPA axis response to a restraint stress. ACTH and
corticosterone levels after restraint stress were significantly lower
in the double-mutant mice than in CRFR1-mutant mice, suggesting a
possible role of CRFR2 in mediation of HPA-axis sensitivity. Mice
deficient in CRFR2 are hypersensitive to stress, displaying a rapid
HPA-axis response (Bale et al., 2000), whereas CRFR1-mutant mice have
an impaired stress response attributable to the absence of CRFR1 in the
anterior pituitary corticotropes. Although CRFR1 is abundantly
expressed in the anterior pituitary, CRFR2 is not, suggesting a new
involvement of CRFR2 in HPA axis activation that may occur upstream of
corticotropic cell stimulation, possibly in CRF cell bodies within the
hypothalamus. Basal levels of ACTH did not differ between groups,
whereas corticosterone levels varied greatly. We detected significantly
lower levels of corticosterone in the double-mutant mice than in the
CRFR1-mutant mice. Because both groups' adrenal glands were similar in
appearance, these results also support a novel role of CRFR2 in
regulation of the HPA axis. Decreased levels of ACTH during development
likely account for agenesis of the adrenal cortex in the double-mutant
mice, as was seen in the previously reported CRFR1-mutant mice (Smith et al., 1998). These data indicate that both CRF receptors, CRFR1 and
CRFR2, are important for maintenance and regulation of homeostasis in
response to stress (Weninger et al., 1999).
Results from testing for anxiety-like behaviors showed that the
double-mutant mice are sexually dichotomous. Female double-mutant mice
display decreased levels of anxiety-like behaviors compared with
wild-type mice. Anxiolytic-like profiles were obtained in the
behavioral parameters derived from the two different anxiety models
tested. Double-mutant female mice entered the open arms of the
EPM more frequently and spent more time in the open arms than control
mice. No significant differences between groups were found in center
visits in the open-field test, but female double-mutant mice produced
significantly fewer fecal boli during the experiment, which is an
indicator of decreased anxiety. These results suggest an
anxiolytic-like phenotype for the female double-mutant mice. However,
male double-mutant mice did not display the anxiolytic-like behavior
detected in the females. In addition, in the open-field test, male
double-mutant mice spent significantly more time grooming than either
controls or CRFR1-mutant mice, indicative of anxiogenic-like behavior.
In comparisons done between male and female mice in each of the anxiety
tasks, the double-mutant female mice were significantly more anxiolytic
than the males. Females spent significantly more time on the open arms
of the EPM and in the center of the open field and produced
significantly fewer fecal boli during testing than the males. However,
no differences were detected between males and females of either
control or CRFR1-mutant mice.
Surprisingly, during behavioral testing we found that the male
CRFR1-mutant mice did not display the characteristic robust anxiolytic-like behavior reported for these mice (Smith et al., 1998;
Timpl et al., 1998; Contarino et al., 1999). By examining differences
in breeding schemes, we have found a significant correlation between
the genotype of the dam and the anxiety-like behavior detected in the
male mice. If the dam is heterozygous or homozygous for the CRFR2
mutation, the pup, regardless of its genotype, is significantly more
likely to show anxiogenic-like behavior. This correlation was only
significant for male pups, not for female pups. These results suggest
then that the reason CRFR1-mutant male mice previously reported to
display dramatic anxiolytic-like behaviors are now not statistically
different from controls is attributable to an effect of their mother's
genotype. Previous studies have well defined the nurturing roll of the
dam and how this behavior may affect the adult anxiety of the pup,
suggesting that a low-nurturing mother leads to a high-anxiety pup
(Zaharia et al., 1996; Caldji et al., 1998). In addition, studies have also shown that the stress hormone levels of the dam during pregnancy affect the anxiety levels of the pups (Takahashi et al., 1988, 1990,
1992; Takahashi and Kalin, 1991; Cratty et al., 1995; Vallee et al.,
1997). Therefore, either the behavioral or endocrine state of the dam
may be affecting the anxiety status of the mice. Our laboratory is
currently examining both of these hypotheses. Because we have reported
previously that the CRFR2-mutant mice display increased anxiety-like
behavior and a hypersensitivity to stress, it is likely that this
phenotype is affecting the behavior of pups reared by "anxious" and
"stressed" mothers.
Previous reports using alternate techniques have also demonstrated
independent roles for CRF receptors in anxiety and stress responses.
Treatment with CRFR1-selective antagonists results in decreased
anxiety-like effects in rodents (Lundkvist et al., 1996; Griebel et
al., 1998; Radulovic et al., 1999) and monkeys (Habib et al., 2000). In
direct contrast, increased levels of anxiety-like behavior were
detected in mice deficient for CRFR2 (Bale et al., 2000; Kishimoto et
al., 2000). Thus, evidence exists in favor of opposite functional roles
for the two known CRF receptors: activation of CRFR1 may be responsible
for increased anxiety-like responses, and stimulation of CRFR2 may
produce anxiolytic-like effects. Regulation of the relative
contribution of the two CRF receptor subtypes to brain CRF pathways may
be essential in coordinating physiological responses to stressors.
CRF, Ucn, Ucn III, and VP mRNA levels were examined by in
situ hybridization in the CNS of control, CRFR1-, CRFR2-, and
double-mutant mice. CRF was dramatically increased in the PVN of
double-mutant mice, but no difference was detected in the cAmyg.
Interestingly, these results are similar to those reported for the
CRFR1-mutant mice (Smith et al., 1998). After corticosterone
replacement, although decreasing in expression, CRF mRNA levels
remained elevated in the PVN of double-mutant mice compared with
control levels. This suggests that the increased CRF mRNA is not
entirely attributable to diminished negative feedback and may indicate
another regulatory mechanism for CRF expression that may involve CRFR2.
Unlike the CRFR2-mutant mice, the double-mutant mice show no increases
in mRNA for CRF in the cAmyg (Bale et al., 2000). These results suggest that the increased CRF mRNA in the cAmyg and accordingly the
anxiety-like behavior detected in the CRFR2-mutant mice may be
attributable to unimpeded CRFR1 activity. This increase in anxiety-like
behavior was also reported in CRF binding-protein-deficient mice, which show increased CRF levels in the brain (Karolyi et al., 1999). The
increased level of Ucn mRNA in the EW nucleus found in the CRFR2-mutant
mice was not observed in the double-mutant mice, suggesting again that
CRFR1 activity is responsible for the increased ligand levels in the
absence of CRFR2 (Weninger et al., 2000). Because VP also increases
ACTH release from anterior pituitary corticotropes (Vale and River,
1977; Liu et al., 1983; DeBold et al., 1984; Rivier et al., 1984;
Bilezikjian and Vale, 1987), we examined VP mRNA levels in the PVN of
these mice. VP expression was increased in both the CRFR2- and
double-mutant mice compared with control and CRFR1-mutant levels.
Increased VP in the CRFR2-mutant mice may explain the hypersensitivity
of the HPA axis in response to stress, suggesting that increased VP is
augmenting the CRF response. The new CRFR2-specific ligand Ucn III was
also examined in the hypothalamus in these mice. We found that Ucn III
mRNA levels were increased in the perifornical region lateral to the PVN in CRFR2- and double-mutant mice (Lewis et al., 2001). These results support a specific interaction between CRFR2 and Ucn III and
may be indicative of a negative feedback regulation for Ucn III.
Afferent projections from the lateral perifornical region innervate the
PVN and therefore may suggest an involvement of Ucn III and CRFR2 in
HPA axis regulation. Because only male mice were examined for gene
expression, sexually dimorphic patterns of gene expression have not yet
been studied.
In summary, mice deficient for both known CRF receptors display altered
anxiety-like behavior and an impaired HPA response to stress. These
results confirm a dominant role for CRFR1 in activation of the HPA axis
during stress and also bring to light the role of CRFR2 in modulation
of the action of CRFR1 as well as its independent actions in HPA axis
activity. Anxiety-like behaviors measured in these mice indicate a
sexual dichotomy in levels of anxiety in the absence of both known CRF
receptors. In addition, these mice provide support for the importance
of maternal behavior on the development of pup responses and coping abilities.
| |
FOOTNOTES |
Received Oct. 2, 2001; revised Oct. 10, 2001; accepted Oct. 16, 2001.
This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant
DK-26741, by the Robert J. and Helen C. Kleberg Foundation, by the
Ludwick Family Foundation, and by the Foundation for Research. T.L.B. is supported by National Research Service Award
fellowship DK09841. We thank Kevin Creehan for animal assistance and
Sandra Guerra for editorial assistance.
T.L.B. and R.P. contributed equally to this work.
Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Wylie W. Vale, The Clayton
Foundation for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute, 10010 North Torrey
Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037. E-mail: vale{at}salk.edu.
| |
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
