Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Dyslexic children show deficits in implicit sequence learning, but not in explicit sequence learning or contextual cueing

  • Published:
Annals of Dyslexia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling abilities. The absence of other high level cognitive deficits in the dyslexic population has led some authors to propose that non-strategical processes like implicit learning could be impaired in this population. Most studies have addressed this issue by using sequence learning tasks, but so far the results have not been conclusive. We test this hypothesis by comparing the performance of dyslexic children and good readers in both implicit and explicit versions of the sequence learning task, as well as in another implicit learning task not involving sequential information. The results showed that dyslexic children failed to learn the sequence when they were not informed about its presence (implicit condition). In contrast, they learned without significant differences in relation to the good readers group when they were encouraged to discover the sequence and to use it in order to improve their performance (explicit condition). Moreover, we observed that this implicit learning deficit was not extended to other forms of non-sequential, implicit learning such as contextual cueing. In this case, both groups showed similar implicit learning about the information provided by the visual context. These results help to clarify previous contradictory data, and they are discussed in relation to how the implicit sequence learning deficit could contribute to the understanding of dyslexia.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Some authors argue that the tendency observed in people with dyslexia to process information holistically may be due to this difficulty in processing sequential stimuli (Facoetti & Molteni, 2001; Hari & Renvall, 2001; Pothos & Kirk, 2004).

References

  • Bennett, I. J., Romano, J. C., Howard, J. H., & Howard, D. V. (2008). Two forms of implicit learning in young adults with dyslexia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1145(Learning, Skill Acquisition, Reading, and Dyslexia), 184–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Yehudah, G., Sackett, E., Malchi-Ginzberg, L., & Ahissar, M. (2001). Impaired temporal contrast sensitivity in dyslexics is specific to retain-and-compare paradigms. Brain, 124(7), 1381–1395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, D. C., & Dienes, Z. (1993). Implicit learning: Theoretical and empirical issues. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castles, A., & Colheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chun, M. M., & Jiang, Y. (1998). Contextual cueing: Implicit learning and memory of visual context guides spatial attention. Cognitive Psychology, 36(1), 28–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A., Ivry, R. I., & Keele, S. W. (1990). Attention and structure in sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 17–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100(4), 589–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108(1), 204–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conlon, E., Sanders, M., & Zapart, S. (2004). Temporal processing in poor adult readers. Neuropsychologia, 42(2), 142–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Defior, S., Fonseca, L., Gottheil, B., Aldrey, A., Rosa, G., Pujals, M., et al. (2006). LEE. Test de lectura y escritura en español. Buenos Aires: Paidós.

    Google Scholar 

  • Destrebecqz, A., & Cleeremans, A. (2001). Can sequence learning be implicit? New evidence with the process dissociation procedure. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 343–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eden, G. F., Stein, J. F., Wood, H. M., & Wood, F. B. (1995). Temporal and spatial processing in reading disabled and normal children. Cortex. Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior, 31(3), 451–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Facoetti, A., & Molteni, M. (2001). The gradient of visual attention in developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 39(4), 352–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett, A. J., & Nicolson, R. I. (1999). Performance of dyslexic children on cerebellar and cognitive tests. Journal of Motor Behavior, 31(1), 68–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gombert, J. E. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning to read: Implication as for subtypes of dyslexia. Current Psychology letters: Behaviour, Brain and Cognition, 10(1). Retrieved 30 March 2006 from http://cpl.revues.org/document202.html.

  • Hari, R., & Renvall, H. (2001). Impaired processing of rapid stimulus sequences in dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5(12), 525–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, J. H., Jr., Howard, D. V., Japikse, K. C., & Eden, G. F. (2006). Dyslexics are impaired on implicit higher-order sequence learning, but not on implicit spatial context learning. Neuropsychologia, 44(7), 1131–1144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • International Dyslexia Association (IDA). Board of Directors (2002). What is dyslexia? Retrieved 12 November 2003 from http://www.interdys.org/FAQWhatIs.htm.

  • Jiménez, L., Méndez, C., & Cleeremans, A. (1996). Comparing direct and indirect measures of sequences learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 948–968.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez, L., & Vázquez, G. A. (2008). Implicit sequence learning in a search task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 1650–1657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez, L., & Vázquez, G. A. (2010). Implicit sequence learning and contextual cueing do not compete for central cognitive resources. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. doi:10.1037/a0020378

  • Jiménez-González, J. E., & Hernández-Valle, I. (2000). Word identification and reading disorders in the Spanish language. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(1), 44–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, S. W., Griffiths, S., & Frith, U. (2002). Evidence for implicit sequence learning in dyslexia. Dyslexia, 8(1), 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menghini, D., Finzi, A., Benassi, M., Bolzani, R., Facoetti, A., Giovagnoli, S., et al. (2010). Different underlying neurocognitive deficits in developmental dyslexia: A comparative study. Neuropsychologia, 48(4), 863–872.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menghini, D., Hagberg, G. E., Caltagirone, C., Petrosini, L., & Vicari, S. (2006). Implicit learning deficits in dyslexic adults: An fMRI study. Neuroimage, 33(4), 1218–1226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1990). Automaticity: A new framework for dyslexia research? Cognition, 30, 159–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1994). Developmental dyslexia: The role of cerebellum. Dyslexia, 5, 155–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (2007). Procedural learning difficulties: Reuniting the developmental disorders? Trends in Neurosciences, 30(4), 135–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson, R. I., Fawcett, A. J., & Dean, P. (2001). Developmental dyslexia: The cerebellar deficit hypothesis. Trends in Neurosciences, 24(9), 508–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nissen, M. J., & Bullemer, P. (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 1–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacton, S., Perruchet, P., Fayol, M., & Cleeremans, A. (2001). Implicit learning out of the lab: The case of orthographic regularities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(3), 401–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pavlidou, E. V., Williams, J. M., & Kelly, L. M. (2009). Artificial grammar learning in primary school children with and without developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 59(1), 55–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perruchet, P., & Amorim, M. A. (1992). Conscious knowledge and changes in performance in sequence learning: Evidence against dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(4), 785–800.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pothos, E. M., & Kirk, J. (2004). Investigating learning deficits associated with dyslexia. Dyslexia, 10(1), 61–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ram-Tsur, R., Faust, M., & Zivotofsky, A. (2006). Sequential processing deficits of reading disabled persons is independent of inter-stimulus interval. Vision Research, 46(22), 3949–3960.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raven, J. (1995). Matrices progresivas de Raven. Escala CPM. Madrid: TEA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reber, A. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed, J., & Johnson, P. (1994). Assessing implicit learning with indirect tests: Determining what is learned about sequence structure. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(3), 585–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rüsseler, J., Gerth, I., & Münte, T. (2006). Implicit learning is intact in adult developmental dyslexic readers: Evidence from the serial reaction time task and artificial grammar learning. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(5), 808–827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, W., Eschmann, A., & Zuccolotto, A. (2002). E-Prime user’s guide. Pittsburgh: Psychology Software Tools.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serrano, F., & Defior, S. (2008). Dyslexia speed problems in a transparent orthography. Annals of Dyslexia, 58(1), 81–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M. E. (1994). Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 367–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soto, P., Sebastián, N., & Maldonado, A. (1992). Retraso en lectura: evaluación y tratamiento educativo. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sperling, A. J., Lu, Z., & Manis, F. R. (2004). Slower implicit categorical learning in adult poor readers. Annals of Dyslexia, 54(2), 281–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sprenger-Charolles, L., Colé, P., Lacert, P., & Serniclaes, W. (2000). On subtypes of developmental dyslexia: Evidence from processing time and accuracy scores. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54, 88–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sprenger-Charolles, L., & Serniclaes, W. (2003). Reliability of phonological and surface subtypes in developmental dyslexia: A review of five multiple cases studies. Current Psychology Letters, 10(1). Retrieved 30 March 2006 from http://cpl.revues.org/document248.html.

  • Steffler, D. J. (2001). Implicit cognition and spelling development. Developmental Review, 21(2), 168–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoodley, C. J., Harrison, E. P., & Stein, J. F. (2006). Implicit motor learning deficits in dyslexic adults. Neuropsychologia, 44(5), 795–798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoodley, C. J., Ray, N. J., Jack, A., & Stein, J. F. (2008). Implicit learning in control, dyslexic, and garden-variety poor readers. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1145(1 Learning, Skill Acquisition, Reading, and Dyslexia), 173–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoodley, C. J., & Stein, J. F. (2006). A processing speed deficit in dyslexic adults? Evidence from a peg-moving task. Neuroscience Letters, 399(3), 264–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Leij, A., & Van Daal, H. P. (1999). Automatization aspect of dyslexia: Speed limitations in word identification, sensitivity to increasing task demanding, and orthographic compensation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 417–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaquero, J. M. M., Jiménez, L., & Lupiáñez, J. (2006). The problem of reversals in assessing implicit sequence learning with the serial reaction time tasks. Experimental Brain Research, 175, 97–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vicari, S., Finzi, A., Menghini, D., Marotta, L., Baldi, S., & Petrosini, L. (2005). Do children with developmental dyslexia have an implicit learning deficit? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 76(10), 1392–1397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vicari, S., Marotta, L., Menghini, D., Molinari, M., & Petrosini, L. (2003). Implicit learning deficit in children with developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 41(1), 108–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waber, D. P., Marcus, D. J., Forbes, P. W., Bellinger, D. C., Weiler, M. D., Sorensen, L. G., et al. (2003). Motor sequence learning and reading ability: Is poor reading associated with sequencing deficits? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 84(4), 338–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, P. H., Michel, G. H., Ovrut, G. F., & Drake, C. (1990). Rate and timing of motor coordination in developmental dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 26(3), 349–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology research grant (SEJ2007-68024.CO2.01 and SEJ2007-63645), FEDER Funding, and the Junta de Andalucía research group HUM-820 awarded to fourth author and by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN) and the European Social Fund (ESF) by a “Ramón y Cajal” research position to the second author.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departamento de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain

    Gracia Jiménez-Fernández & Sylvia Defior

  2. Departamento de Psicología Experimental y Fisiología del Comportamiento, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Granada, Campus Universitario Cartuja s/n, 18071, Granada, Spain

    Joaquín M. M. Vaquero

  3. Departamento de Psicología Social, Básica y Metodología, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

    Luis Jiménez

Authors
  1. Gracia Jiménez-Fernández
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joaquín M. M. Vaquero
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Luis Jiménez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sylvia Defior
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joaquín M. M. Vaquero.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jiménez-Fernández, G., Vaquero, J.M.M., Jiménez, L. et al. Dyslexic children show deficits in implicit sequence learning, but not in explicit sequence learning or contextual cueing. Ann. of Dyslexia 61, 85–110 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-010-0048-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-010-0048-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation