ArticlesCocaine’s Effects on Neuroendocrine Systems: Clinical and Preclinical Studies
Section snippets
Background
Prolactin exists in all vertebrates, and one of its primary physiological functions is the stimulation of milk production and the maintenance of lactation after pregnancy. Prolactin also has a number of other behavioral and physiologic effects in humans and other species 112, 147, 163, 250. For example, in addition to its effect on the mammary glands, prolactin also influences migration in birds, parenting behavior in birds and mammals, and the maintenance of water and electrolyte balance [147]
Background
The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis is the major endogenous hormonal system that activates the integrative physiological response to stress. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) regulates the pulsatile release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary. CRH is secreted by neurons in the basal hypothalamus, and CRH and ACTH secretion are under negative feedback control by cortisol, which is released from the adrenal cortex. A number of neuronal systems are involved in the regulation of CRH
Background
The gonadotropin hormones, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), are released from cells called gonadotropes located in the anterior pituitary. Although most gonadotropes (60%) contain both LH and FSH, a number of small gonadotropes contain LH or FSH alone. The release of both LH and FSH is stimulated by a hypothalamic peptide hormone, luteinizing-hormone releasing-hormone (LHRH), also known as gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). LH and FSH release is pulsatile and
Background
We have seen that acute cocaine administration changes anterior pituitary and gonadal hormone levels but, with the exception of prolactin, it has been difficult to detect changes in basal hormone levels after chronic cocaine abuse or short-term cocaine exposure in animal models. We infer that chronic changes in neuroendocrine function do occur, on the basis of clinical and experimental evidence of cocaine-related disruptions in reproductive function 27, 122, 191, 193, 206. However, the ways in
Conclusions
Cocaine interacts with many neuromodulatory systems in brain and has both direct and indirect effects on anterior pituitary, gonadal, and adrenal hormones. The comodulatory interactions between these hormones have been emphasized throughout this review. An obvious limitation of studies of cocaine’s effects on single hormones, at a single time point, is that the effects measured cannot reflect the full spectrum of interactions within the neuroendocrine system. However, studies conducted thus far
Acknowledgements
Preparation of this review was supported in part by grants K05 DA 00101 and K05 DA 00064 and P-50 DA 04059 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH. We thank our colleague Dr. S. S. Negus of the Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center, McLean Hospital and Harvard Medical School, for his helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. We are grateful to J. Wallis Sholar for preparing the figures. We thank Loretta Carvelli, Susan Grady, and Eleanor DeRubeis for their excellent
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