Abstract
Objective: The aim of this study is to investigate the presence of any non-linearity in the magnetoencephalographic recordings (MEG) from the temporal lobe of schizophrenic patients in comparison with controls, in order to find the differences underlying the brain waves. We calculated the correlation dimension, which is a measure of the complexity of the dynamic system, as well as the first Lyapunov exponent that indicates the system's unpredictability. Methods: The schizophrenic group consisted of 3 men and 7 women aged 23-32 years (mean 27.2, SD=3.5) and the control group of 3 men and 6 women aged 26-35 years (mean 31.6±4.1). There were no significant differences between the two groups as far as age and sex were concerned. None of them received any medication. Results: The analysis of the MEG in the schizophrenic group showed lower dimension complexity and moreover the first Lyapunov exponent presented lower values compared with the corresponding ones in the control group, which means lower information processing. Conclusion: EEG findings as determined by MEG and non-linear analysis may offer important perspectives to better understand brain function in schizophrenia.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anninos, P., Adamopoulos, A., Kotini, A. and Tsagas, N. Nonlinear Analysis of Brain Activity in Magnetic Influenced Parkinson Patients. Brain Topogr., 2000, 13: 135–144.
Anninos, P.A., Anogianakis, G., Lehnertz, K., Pantev, C. and Hoke, M. Biomagneticmeasurements using SQUID. Int. J. Neurosci., 1987, 37: 149–168.
Anninos, P.A., Tsagas, N., Jacobson, J.I. and Kotini, A. The biological effects of magnetic stimulation in epileptic patients. Panminerva Med., 1999, 41: 207–215.
Arnold, S.E., Franz, B.R., Trojanowski, J.Q., Moberg, P.J. and Gur, R.E. Glial fibrillary acidic protein-immunoreactive astrocytosis in eldery patients with schizophrenia and dementia. Acta. Neuropathol., 1996, 91: 269–277.
Babloyantz, A. and Dextexhe, A. Low dimensional chaos in an instance of epilepsy. Pr. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1986, 83: 3513–3517.
Babloyantz, A. and Dextexhe, A. The Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease in the hierarch of chaotic attractor. In: M. Markus, S. Muller and G. Nicolis (Eds.), Chemical to Biological Organization. New York: Springer, 1987: 307–316.
Babloyantz, A., Salazar, J.M. and Nicolis, C. Evidence of chaotic dynamics of brain activity during the sleep cycle. Phys. Lett. A., 1985, 111: 152–156.
Burioka, N., Cornelissen, G., Halberg, F. and Kaplan, D.T. Relationship between correlation dimension and indices of linear analysis in both respiratory movement and electroencephalogram. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2001, 112: 1147–1153.
Cahn, W., Pol, H.E., Bongers, M., Schnack, H.G., Mandl, R.C., Van Haren, N.E. et al. Brain morphology in antipsychotic-naï ve schizophrenia: a study of multiple brain structures. Br. J. Psychiatry Suppl., 2002, 43: 66–72.
Crow, T.J. Temporal lobe asymmetries as the key to the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull., 1990, 16: 433–443.
Dvorak, I. and Klaschka, J. Modification of the Grassberger-Procaccia algorithm for estimating the correlation exponent of chaotic systems with high embedding dimension. Phys. Lett. A., 1990, 145: 225–231.
Elbert, T., Lutzenberger, W., Rochstroh, B., Berg, P. and Cohen, R. Physical aspects of the EEG in schizophrenics. Biol. Psychiatry, 1992, 32: 595–606.
Elbert, T., Ray, W.J., Kowalik, Z.J., Skinner, J.E., Graf, K.E. and Birbaumer, N. Chaos and physiology: deterministic chaos in excitable cell assemblies. Physiol. Rev., 1994, 74: 1–47.
Falkai, P., Honer, W.G., David, S., Bogerts, B., Majtenyi, C. and Bayer, T.A. Noevidence for astrogliosis in brains of schizophrenic patients. A post-mortem study. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol., 1999, 25: 48–53.
Fell, J., Roschke, J. and Beckmann, P. The calculation of the first positive Lyapunov exponent in sleep EEG data. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1993, 86: 348–352.
Ferri, R., Elia, M., Musumeci, S.A. and Stam, C.J. Non-linear EEGanalysis in children with epilepsy and electrical status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep (ESES). Clin. Neurophysiol., 2001, 112: 2274–2280.
Frank, G.W., Lookman, T., Nerenberg, M.A.H., Essex, C., Lemieux, J. and Blume, W. Chaotic time series analysis of epileptic seizures. Physica. D., 1990, 46: 427–438.
Grassberger, P. and Procaccia, I. Characterization of strange attractors. Phys. Rev. Lett., 1983, 50: 346–349.
Haken, H., Kelso, J.A.S. and Bunz, H. A theoretical model of phase transitions in human hand movements. Biol. Cybern., 1985, 51: 347–356.
Jasper, H.H. The ten-twenty electrode system of the International Federation. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1958, 10: 367–380.
Jeong, J., Kim, D.J., Chae, J.H., Kim, S.Y. and Ko, H.J. Nonlinear analysis of theEEGof schizophrenics with optimal embedding dimension. Med. Engin. Phys., 1998, 20: 669–676.
Kaplan, D. Time-series analysis. In: D. Kaplan and L. Glass (Eds.), Understanding nonlinear dynamics, 1995.
Kim, D.J., Jeong, J., Chae, J.H., Park, S., Kim, S.Y., Go, H.J., Paik, I.H., Kim, K.S. and Choi, B. An estimation of the first positive Lyapunov exponent of the EEG in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. Neuroimag. Sect., 2000, 98: 177–189.
Koukkou, M., Lehmann, D., Wackermann, J., Dcorak, I. and Henggeler, B. Dimensional complexity ofEEGbrain mechanism in untreated schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry, 1993, 33: 397–407.
Kowalik, Z.J., Schnitzler, A., Freund, H. and Witte, O.W. Local Lyapunov exponents detect epileptic zones in spike-less interictal MEG recordings. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2001, 112: 60–67.
Lawrie, S.M., Whalley, H.C., Abukmeil, S.S., Kestelman, J.N., Miller, P., Best, J.J.K. et al. Temporal lobe volume changes in people at high risk of schizophrenia with psychotic symptoms. Br. J. Psychiatry, 2002, 181: 138–143.
Lutzenberger, W., Birbaumer, N., Flor, H., Rockstroh, B. and Elbert, T. Dimensional analysis of the human EEG and intelligence. Neurosci. Lett., 1992, 143: 10–14.
Merrin, E.L. and Floyd, T.C. Average reference EEG lateralization in schizophrenic patients. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 1991, 3: 307–314.
Morrison-Stewart, S.L., Williamson, P.C., Corning, W.C., Kutcher, S.P.and Merskey, H. Coherence on electroencephalography and aberrant functional organisation of the brain in schizophrenic patients during activation tasks. Br. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 159: 636–644.
Nagase, Y., Okubo, Y., Matsuura, M., Kojima, T. and Toru, M. EEG coherence in unmedicated schizophrenic patients: topographical study of predominantly never medicated cases. Biol. Psychiatry, 1992, 32: 1028–1034.
Okugawa, G., Sedvall, G.C. and Agartz, I. Reduced grey and white matter volumes in the temporal lobe of male patients with chronic schizophrenia. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2002, 252: 120–123.
Peitgen, H.O., Jurgens, H. and Saupe, D. Chaos and fractals: New frontiers of science. New York: Springer, 1992: 739–743.
Pijn, J.P., Van Neerven, J., Noest, A. and Lopes da Silva, F.H. Chaos or noise in EEG signals: dependence on state and brain site. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1991, 79: 371–381.
Pritchard, W.S., Duke, D.W. and Coburn, K.L. Altered EEG dynamical responsivity associated with normal aging and probable Alzheimer's disease. Dementia, 1991, 2: 102–105.
Rapp, P.E., Bashore, T.R., Martinerie, J.M., Albano, A.M., Zimmerman, I.D. and Mees, A.I. Dynamics of brain electrical activity. Brain Topogr., 1989, 2: 99–118.
Reite, M.M., Teale, P., Goldstein, L., Whalen, J. and Linnville, S. Late auditory magnetic sources may differ in the left hemisphere of schizophrenia patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 1989, 46: 565–572.
Rockstroh, B., Watzl, H., Kowalik, Z.J., Cohen, R., Sterr, A., Muller, M. and Elbert, T. Dynamical aspects of the EEG in different psychopathological states in an interview situation: a pilot study. Schizophr. Res., 1997, 28: 77–85.
Roschke, J. and Aldenhoff, J. Estimation of the dimensionality of sleep-EEG data in schizophrenics. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 1993, 242: 191–196.
Rosenstein, M.T., Collins, J.J. and Juca, J.D. A practical method for calculation largest Lyapunov exponents from small data sets. Physica. D., 1993, 65: 117–134.
Stam, C.J., Jelles, B., Achtereekte, H.A.M., Birgelen, J.H. and van Slaets, J.P.J. Diagnostic usefulness of linear and nonlinear quantitative EEG analysis in Alzheimer's disease. Clin. Electroencephalogr., 1996, 27: 69–77.
Stam, C.J., Jelles, B., Achtereekte, H.A.M., Rombouts, S.A.R.B., Slaets, J.P.J. and Keunen, R.W.M. Investigation of EEG nonlinearity in dementia and Parkinson's disease. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1995, 95: 309–317.
Sumich, A., Chitnis, X.A., Fannon, D.G., O'Ceallaigh, S., Doku, V.C., Falrowicz, A. et al. Temporal lobe abnormalities in first-episode psychosis. Am. J. Psychiatry, 2002, 159: 1232–1235.
Takens, F. Detecting strange attractors in the turbulence. Lect. Notes Math, 1981, 898: 366–381.
Taylor, D.G. Advances in the neuropathology of schizophrenia. In: J.A. den Boer, H.G.M. Westenberg and H.M. van Praag (Eds.), Advances in the neurobiology of schizophrenia, 1st ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York, Berlin, 1995: 111–130.
Theiler, J. and Rapp, P.E. Re-xamination of the evidence for low-dimensional nonlinear structure in the human electroencephalogram. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1996, 98: 213–222.
Van der Heyden, M.J., Velis, D.N., Hoekstra, B.P., Pijn, J.P., van EmdeBoas, W., van Veelen, C.W., van Rijen, P.C., Lopes da Silva, F.H. and DeGoede, J. Non-linear analysis of intracranial human EEG in temporal lobe epilepsy. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1999, 110: 1726–1740.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kotini, A., Anninos, P. Detection of Non-Linearity in Schizophrenic Patients Using Magnetoencephalography. Brain Topogr 15, 107–113 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021420507901
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021420507901