Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
A view of the virtual environment. Note that the landscape and a tree can be viewed at a distance, whereas the objects down the stairs at the end of the arms are not visible from the center of the maze.
- Figure 2.
The behavioral results. A, The total number of errors made in the training phase (sections II and III) averaged across subjects in the spatial memory, shift, and nonspatial strategy groups. B, The number of errors made while performing the probe trial in sections I (probe 1) and IV (probe 2) averaged across subjects in the spatial memory, shift, and nonspatial strategy groups. C, The average time that the spatial memory, shift, and nonspatial strategy groups required to perform one trial in sections (S) I to IV of the experiment. SEM are shown. Asterisks indicate that the spatial memory group is different from the nonspatial strategy group; p < 0.05.
- Figure 3.
Brain activity common to both spatial memory and nonspatial strategy groups (experimental minus control task). The t maps are superimposed onto the anatomical average of all participants and displayed in the sagittal plane. A, Posterior parietal cortex. B, Middorsolateral prefrontal cortex. C, Motor–premotor cortical region. D, Supplementary motor cortex. E, Putamen. L, Left hemisphere; R, right hemisphere.
- Figure 4.
Activity in the hippocampus and caudate nucleus found in the spatial memory group and nonspatial strategy group, respectively. The t maps are superimposed onto the anatomical average of all participants and displayed in the sagittal and coronal planes. A, Activity in the right hippocampus when contrasting the experimental and control conditions of the spatial memory group, minus those of the nonspatial strategy group in the first scan (x = 32; y = -14; z = -20; t = 4.41). B, Activity in the right caudate nucleus found in the nonspatial strategy group (scan 5) (x = 14; y =-8; z = 22; t = 4.04).
Tables
Talairach coordinates Anatomical region x y z t value Right Parietal cortex 18 -64 54 6.5 Middle frontal gyrus 30 34 28 4.9 Motor-premotor cortical region 24 -12 54 5.76 4 4 48 4.51 Supplementary motor cortex 8 -4 48 4.94 Cingulate cortex 12 18 40 4.75 12 4 40 4.77 Putamen 28 4 4 4.05 Caudate nucleus 16 -8 22 4.07 Cerebellum 30 -34 -42 5.02 Left Parietal cortex -28 -60 56 7.16 Middle frontal gyrus -32 26 28 5.31 Motor-premotor cortical region -28 -8 52 5.79 -32 -24 62 5.76 Supplementary motor cortex -6 -10 54 5.02 Middle occipital gyrus -32 -82 16 4.6 Putamen -30 4 0 4.99 - Table 2.
Brain activity found in the hippocampus and caudate nucleus of the spatial memory and nonspatial strategy groups
Talairach coordinates Anatomical region X Y Z t value Spatial memory group Right hippocampus scan 1 32 -14 -20 4.41 scan 2 22 -16 -14 3.49 Right caudate nucleus scan 2 14 -6 20 4.82 scan 8 24 -22 24 4.65 Left caudate nucleus scan 8 -20 -2 24 3.58 Nonspatial strategy group Right caudate nucleus scan 4 20 8 18 3.81 scan 5 14 -8 22 4.04 scan 6 20 -24 22 4.41 scan 8 8 -4 20 5.36 Left caudate nucleus scan 6 -12 -10 18 4.3 - Table 3.
Correlation between the BOLD signal increases and error rate in the spatial memory and nonspatial strategy groups
Talairach coordinates Anatomical region X Y Z t value Spatial memory group (errors) Positive correlation Right hippocampus 32 -14 -20 2.38 Left hippocampus -34 -36 -8 2.86 Negative correlation Right caudate nucleus 14 -6 18 -3.75 Nonspatial strategy group (errors) Positive correlation Right angular gyrus (area 39) 52 -70 24 4.48 Negative correlation Right caudate nucleus 14 -16 22 -3.12 Left caudate nucleus -18 -14 24 -3.91 Left parietal cortex (area 7) -26 -60 56 -4.85 Right cerebellum 0 -58 -26 -9.65 Left cerebellum -6 -62 -22 -10.32 - Table 4.
Correlation between the BOLD signal increases and latency in the spatial memory and nonspatial strategy groups
Talairach coordinates Anatomical region X Y Z t value Spatial memory group (latency) Positive correlation Right hippocampus 32 -34 -8 2.53 Left hippocampus -26 -34 -6 2.32 Negative correlation Right superior temporal gyrus (area 39) 58 -60 36 -5.93 Right cingulate gyrus (area 32) 10 20 30 -5.08 Right caudate nucleus 10 10 -4 -3.43 Nonspatial strategy group (latency) Negative correlation Right caudate nucleus 14 -18 24 -3.84 Left caudate nucleus -18 -16 24 -4.03 Right cerebellum 0 -58 -26 -9.71 Left cerebellum -6 -62 -22 -10.36
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