Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Domino game paradigm. Each round of the game was composed of four intervals: the player chose which chip to play next (first interval: “Choose”; 4 s), moved the cursor to the chosen chip, and placed it face down adjacent to the master chip (second interval: “Ready” and “Go”; 4 s). The player then waited for the opponent's response (third interval: “Anticipation”; jittered randomly to 3.4, 5.4, or 7.4 s), and saw whether the opponent challenged this choice by uncovering the chosen chip or not (fourth interval: “Outcome”; jittered randomly to 3.4, 5.4, or 7.4 s). The player's choices and opponent's responses were interactively determined by the flow of the game round after round, creating a natural and unpredictable progression of a game situation that lasted 4 min or until the player won. Each player played consecutively for 14 min (average number of games ± SEM: 4.23 ± 0.06).
- Figure 2.
Whole-brain analysis. Each of our three contrasts of interest elicited a differential pattern of distributed brain activations that highly corresponded to the motivational neural systems as proposed by the RST model. During response to punishment, activations were observed in the amygdala (1), hypothalamus (2), and sgACC (3), corresponding to the FFFS (red). During response to reward, activations were observed in the NAcc (4) and dmPFC (5), corresponding to BAS (green). Finally, during periods of goal-conflict, activations were observed in the hippocampus (6) and vmPFC (7), corresponding to BIS (blue). n = 24.
- Figure 3.
DCM results. A, Model comparison. Each comparison refers to one subgraph, consisting of four models with the same architecture (i.e., effective and modulatory connections), defined by different motivational states as inputs: (1) common effects, (2) conflict, (3) punishment, and (4) reward. B, Winning models. I, Effective connections were found to be significant among amygdala, hypothalamus, and sgACC during punishment interval, all suspected to be part of the FFFS. Punishment state had significant input to the amygdala and hypothalamus and modulatory effects on all connections between regions. II, Effective connections were found to be significant between NAcc and dmPFC under reward state, as proposed for BAS. Reward state had significant input to NAcc and modulatory effects on the NAcc–dmPFC connection. III, Effective connections were significant between the hippocampus and vmPFC during goal-conflict, as proposed for BIS. Goal-conflict state had significant input to the hippocampus and modulatory effects on all connections between regions. Tables display averaged parameter estimates (in Hz). n = 24.
Tables
- Table 1.
Peak of activations elicited by our three predetermined independent whole-brain contrasts of interest (i.e., motivational states)
Region Cluster (no. of voxels) Peak voxel (x, y, z) Z value (df = 23) p < (uncorrected) Response to punishment outcome R hypothalamus 22 6, −6., −12 3.54 0.000 L hypothalamus 20 −6, −6, −9 3.49 0.000 Midbrain 18 0, −13, −21 2.36 0.009 R insula 12 41, −19, 24 3.19 0.001 R amygdala 6 25, −3, −27 3.18 0.001 R inferior temporal gyrus 10 47, 3, −42 2.86 0.002 L fusiform gyrus 10 −28, −53, −12 2.83 0.002 R anterior cingulate cortex (BA 24) 12 0, 25, 9 2.74 0.003 R temporal pole (STG) 7 44, 9, −21 2.72 0.003 L precuneus 10 6, −63, 30 2.62 0.004 R posterior cingulated cortex 7 13, −6, 30 2.52 0.006 L parahippocampal gyrus 11 −28, −34, −12 2.51 0.006 L superior temporal gyrus 6 −47, −16, −6 2.47 0.007 R pons 6 6, −19, −27 2.46 0.007 L cerebellum 21 −6, −41, −18 2.44 0.007 R cerebellum 9 13, −31, −21 2.37 0.009 L temporal pole (STG, BA 38) 12 −50, 6, −15 2.13 0.017 R sgACC (BA25) 8 3, 26, −4 2.06 0.02 L anterior cingulated cortex (BA 32) 6 −9, 47, −3 1.96 0.025 Response to reward outcome R inferior frontal gyrus (BA 44) 55 59, 9, 18 4.1 0.000 R supra marginal gyrus 16 63, −22, 30 3.91 0.000 L inferior parietal lobule (BA40) 6 −53, −53, 48 3.89 0.000 L precentral gyrus (BA 6) 28 −63, −13, 36 3.87 0.000 L putamen 6 −31, −16, −3 3.79 0.000 L SMA 28 0, 0, 66 3.69 0.000 L NAcc 61 −16, 16, −3 3.64 0.000 R lingual gyrus 8 9, −78, 0 3.58 0.000 R insula 11 41, −3, 9 3.52 0.000 L insula 8 −34, −3, −3 3.50 0.000 R cerebellum 11 28, −66, −30 3.49 0.000 L thalamus 9 −16, −19, 9 3.49 0.000 R precuneus 7 9, −59, 54 3.44 0.000 R caudate nucleus 9 16, 19, 6 3.39 0.000 L caudate nucleus 6 −22, 0, 21 3.36 0.000 R NAcc 28 9, 16, −3 3.35 0.000 R middle occipital gyrus 6 41, −81, 0 3.27 0.001 R precentral gyrus 7 74, −13, 51 3.23 0.001 L precuneus (BA 7) 14 −19, −56, 39 3.23 0.001 L middle frontal gyrus (BA 8) 9 −34, 22, 36 3.23 0.001 R dorsomedial PFC (BA 10) 8 22, 56, 15 3.13 0.001 Response to goal-conflict L inferior frontal gyrus 350 −47, 19, 24 5.09 0.000 L hippocampus 40 −22, −34, −6 4.79 0.000 L occipital inferior and middle gyri (BA 17, 18) 707 −16, −91, −15 4.79 0.000 L occipital inferior gyrus (BA 17) 180 13, −97, −3 4.73 0.000 R inferior frontal gyrus 125 41, 22, 27 4.34 0.000 R ventromedial PFC (BA 11) 7 19, 38, −9 3.95 0.000 L ventromedial PFC (BA 11) 40 19, 38, −9 3.93 0.000 L SMA (BA 8) 36 −13, 16, 48 3.8 0.000 R fusiform gyrus 5 38, −63, −15 3.78 0.000 R middle frontal gyrus 5 31, 16, 57 3.74 0.000 R caudate nucleus 29 13, 16, 12 3.62 0.000 L caudate nucleus 64 −13, 22, 6 3.57 0.000 L posterior cingulated cortex (BA 23) 27 −3, −34, 24 3.53 0.000 L precuneus (BA 7) 9 −9, −72, −51 3.42 0.000 R precuneus (BA 7) 9 19, −66, 24 3.34 0.000 R superior frontal gyrus (BA 10) 9 19, 64, 3 3.63 0.001 L anterior cingulated cortex (BA 33) 5 −3, 13, 27 3.15 0.001 R hippocampus 4 38, −28, −15 3.04 0.001 R posterior cingulated cortex (BA 23) 6 6, −34, 24 3.03 0.001 R superior parietal lobule 7 28, −63, 57 2.96 0.002 R SMA 5 13, 19, 45 2.86 0.002 Localization is based on Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) criteria. Estimated level of activation is described by Z score and P values. Minimal p = 0.05, uncorrected, random effect, minimum cluster size 135 mm3 (i.e., 5 voxels). L, Left; R, right; BA, Brodmann area; SMA, supplementary motor area; STG, stomatogastric ganglion. n = 24.
