Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Behavioral improvement as a function of training. a, The significant group–time interaction on SSRT at the baseline and endpoint session for the training and sham-training groups (F(1,58) = 4.76, p < 0.05). Error bars indicate 2 SEs around the mean. b, The significant negative linear slope of SSRT across training sessions within the training group (with 95% confidence interval, dashed lines; F(1,29) = 7.17, p < 0.05). Dashed curves indicate 95% confidence interval around the linear regression line.
- Figure 2.
The IC network as identified by the correct stop > correct go contrast at baseline. The image shows the activation for the training group in yellow, the sham-training group in red, and the overlap in orange. Contrast thresholded at FWE rate of 0.05 as implemented in SPM8.
- Figure 3.
The group–time interaction in the right IFG during the cue phase. The right IFG showed greater increases immediately preceding each trial from pretraining to post-training in the training group compared with the sham-training group.
- Figure 4.
Simple effects of time (from pretraining to post-training) in the training group during the preparation (cue) phase (left side) and implementation (stopping) phase (right side). Increases over time are shown on the top and decreases are on the bottom. Activation in supramarginal gyrus increased during preparation and decreased during implementation, along with ACC/preSMA, right IFG, and rMFG. Conversely, activation in putamen decreased during preparation and increased during implementation. Asterisk indicates cluster that emerged at a slightly lower threshold but was significant at the default threshold in the whole-sample (N = 60) mask.
- Figure 5.
Simple effect of group (training group > sham-training) at the endpoint session following training during the preparation (cue) phase. The training group showed greater activation in right IFG at endpoint than the sham-training group, and increased to a greater extent over time.
- Figure 6.
Regions where activity was moderated by the effectiveness of training as measured by the linear slope of SSRT across training sessions. Greater training effectiveness (i.e., steeper negative slopes) were associated with increased activation in DLPFC during preparation (left) and decreased activation during implementation (right).
Tables
- Table 1.
Behavioral data for baseline, endpoint, and all training sessions presented as mean (SD)
Training group Sham-training group SSRT GoRT SSD % Inhib SSRT GoRT SSD % Inhib Baseline 238.17 (47.03) 562.81 (131.58) 308.91 (154.84) 51.25 (10.36) 251.62 (115.70) 565.79 (120.98) 309.92 (141.96) 50.00 (11.85) 1 198.69 (67.81) 487.11 (124.18) 275.78 (109.88) 48.75 (13.94) — 372.71 (38.57) — — 2 189.93 (54.25) 476.78 (128.96) 281.51 (157.48) 49.17 (9.21) — 376.52 (44.71) — — 3 194.71 (81.14) 485.00 (138.81) 290.21 (178.43) 46.88 (9.92) — 377.89 (55.40) — — 4 185.71 (54.05) 479.54 (123.70) 286.20 (167.08) 50.10 (5.53) — 377.71 (51.55) — — 5 181.35 (66.08) 481.33 (136.34) 298.96 (174.08) 47.50 (8.50) — 381.44 (67.04) — — 6 183.88 (42.18) 477.28 (129.33) 285.36 (154.30) 50.73 (4.76) — 378.32 (76.84) — — 7 172.36 (42.56) 475.40 (130.35) 294.95 (154.68) 50.10 (4.46) — 373.93 (69.99) — — 8 176.56 (38.07) 472.37 (132.48) 290.00 (159.72) 49.38 (4.37) — 375.86 (76.57) — — 9 162.7 (61.32) 471.24 (128.39) 299.58 (164.37) 49.06 (5.51) — 374.63 (77.32) — — 10 161.31 (57.53) 476.92 (132.56) 303.91 (169.22) 50.63 (4.67) — 373.75 (81.26) — — Endpoint 202.85 (28.45) 553.71 (130.26) 322.40 (140.03) 51.88 (7.42) 245.72 (98.38) 535.69 (115.14) 294.19 (134.19) 47.24 (13.10) GoRT, Go response time; % Inhib, percentage of successful stops on stop trials.
Anatomical region x y z t z k Right inferior frontal gyrus 48 18 −9 14.75 4318* 42 9 30 11.30 Right middle frontal gyrus 45 24 27 9.47 39 36 24 8.66 36 3 54 8.19 Right insula 36 15 −6 13.21 Bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate 3 36 12 8.59 6 24 33 12.12 −6 21 39 8.61 Right supplementary motor area 12 12 63 10.26 Right caudate 12 9 3 10.93 Right thalamus 9 −9 0 10.02 Right midbrain 3 −30 −6 7.85 Right middle temporal gyrus 51 −27 −9 12.33 Right superior temporal gyrus 63 −42 15 13.25 60 −33 6 12.55 51 3 −18 9.35 Right inferior parietal lobule 48 −45 39 12.03 Left inferior frontal gyrus −42 18 0 9.75 1386* Left insula −33 24 −12 13.14 −27 15 6 9.57 Left caudate −12 6 3 9.06 Left thalamus −6 −12 −3 7.27 Left superior temporal gyrus −54 −3 −12 7.82 −54 −24 0 9.90 −54 −45 12 11.19 Left inferior parietal lobule −60 −45 30 10.42 −51 −45 48 7.46 Right cingulate 6 −18 27 8.00 6.56 68 Right precuneus 9 −66 42 5.97 5.26 7 Right middle frontal gyrus −42 33 24 5.76 5.11 2 Corrected using FWE correction of p = 0.05.
↵*All regions listed below k = 4318 and k = 1386 (until the next listed k value) are part of the same cluster.
Anatomical region x y z k t z Increases for training > sham — — — Decreases for training > sham — — — Increases for training Right putamen 21 9 −3 47 4.64 3.98 Decreases for training Right angular gyrus 60 −51 30 191 4.85 4.11 Right supramarginal gyrus 48 −51 42 3.50 3.17 Right IFG/temporal pole 54 12 −6 37 4.23 3.70 Right ACC/preSMA 12 21 51 32 4.36 3.79 Posterior DMPFC 6 24 60 3.47 3.15 rMFG 48 3 45 126 4.06 3.58 Increases for sham — — — Decreases for sham — — — Training > sham at endpoint — — — Sham > training at endpoint — — — Training > sham at baseline — — — Sham > training at baseline — — — Corrected using AlphaSim; voxelwise threshold of p = 0.005, cluster size k > 29 for training, 35 for sham, and 35 for analyses with both groups; search conducted within the masks shown in Figure 2.
Anatomical region x y z k t z Increases for training > sham Right inferior frontal gyrus 51 18 −3 50 3.43 3.34 Decreases for training > sham — — — Increases for training Right supramarginal gyrus 54 −45 39 18* 3.13 2.88 Decreases for training Right putamen 21 9 −3 98 5.57 4.56 Left putamen −24 9 −3 31 3.86 3.44 Increases for sham — — — Decreases for sham Left thalamus −15 −3 9 89 4.87 4.11 Left caudate −9 9 −3 3.63 3.25 Right putamen 15 6 −9 55 4.79 4.06 Training > sham at endpoint Right inferior frontal gyrus 45 18 6 35 3.86 3.62 Sham > training at endpoint — — — Training > sham at baseline — — — Sham > training at baseline — — — Corrected using AlphaSim; voxelwise threshold of p = 0.005, cluster size k > 29 for training, 35 for sham, and 35 for analyses with both groups unless otherwise noted; search conducted within the masks shown in Figure 2.
↵*This cluster emerged at a slightly lower threshold but was significant at the default threshold in the whole-sample (N = 60) mask.
- Table 5.
Correlations in the training group of change in activation over time (endpoint > baseline) with training slope (more negative slope = more effective training)
Anatomical region x y z k t z Cue > rest Positive correlation — — — Negative correlation Right middle frontal gyrus 24 42 30 32 3.99 3.52 Stop > rest Positive correlation Right middle frontal gyrus 36 30 27 52 4.74 4.03 Negative correlation — — — Corrected using AlphaSim; voxelwise threshold of p = 0.005, cluster size k > 29; search conducted within the mask shown in Figure 2.
