Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Schema and timeline of the experiment. A, Hierarchical structure of one of the two schemata (arthropods) and exemplar names of the other schema (cells) which served as control in this example. Schema and control were randomized across participants. For a figure with the hierarchical structure of the “cell” schema, see Hennies et al. (2016). B, Acquisition of schema-knowledge and familiarization with the control names over 7 weeks with 1 learning session per week in the institute and homework in-between. Participants achieved high performance in the multiple-choice questions (mc questions) and the picture naming task of their schema. In the scanner, participants encoded 3 times (encoding Rounds 1-3) 72 novel facts related to the exemplars of their schema and 72 facts related to their control exemplars. In encoding Rounds 4-7 outside of the scanner, they only repeated the control facts to ensure equal immediate memory for SR and control facts. In the first encoding round, participants judged whether they will remember the novel facts in Rounds 2-7 whether they did remember it. Encoding was followed by immediate retrieval of all learned novel facts in the scanner. Two weeks later, all facts were retrieved again in the scanner followed by retrieval of 24 of the overlearned schema-knowledge facts. During retrieval, two equally plausible response alternatives were presented (targets and lures were randomized across participants) and participants indicated their confidence on a 3 point scale (hc, high; mc, medium; lc, low confidence).
- Figure 2.
Behavioral results. A, Encoding Rounds 1-3 for novel SR and control facts took place in the MR scanner, Rounds 4-7 only for control facts outside of the scanner. In the first round, participants rated whether they will remember the fact (judgment of learning) and in Rounds 2-7 whether they did remember the fact (judgment of memory). B, Response times for the judgment of learning (Round 1), respectively, judgment of memory (Rounds 2-7) during encoding. C, Proportion of high (hc), medium (mc), and low confident (lc) hits (relative to all responses in that delay × schema condition) during immediate and delayed retrieval for the SR and control facts as well as for the subset of facts of the schema-knowledge only during delayed retrieval. D, Retrieval times for high, medium, and low confident hits during retrieval. Error bars indicate SEM around the mean, corrected for interindividual differences (Loftus and Masson, 1994).
- Figure 3.
Activity related to retrieval of the overlearned schema-knowledge and to the encoding of novel SR and control facts. A, Activity during retrieval of the overlearned schema–knowledge (after the delayed retrieval of the novel SR and control facts) was greater in the ventrolateral PFC (and other areas) compared with immediate retrieval of novel SR facts (red bar). Activity during retrieval of schema-knowledge was statistically contrasted against immediate retrieval of SR facts because response times were similar in both conditions (see Fig. 2D). Activity in the other three conditions (immediate retrieval of control facts as well as delayed retrieval of SR and control facts) in this voxel is plotted in transparent bars because it was not statistically tested against retrieval of schema-knowledge. B, During encoding of novel SR (red bars) than control (NS, blue bars) facts, activity was greater in the vmPFC and the vPC/RSC. C, Coupling differences between encoding SR and control facts. The vmPFC was more strongly coupled with the hippocampus and fusiform gyrus during encoding of SR than control (NS) facts in the three rounds. Error bars indicate SEM around the mean, corrected for interindividual differences (Loftus and Masson, 1994). Visualization threshold p < 0.001, uncorrected.
- Figure 4.
Activity differences during retrieval. A, During immediate and delayed retrieval of SR (red bars), facts activity was greater in the vmPFC and the vPC/RSC. B, The difference in coupling of the vmPFC with the precuneus during retrieval of SR and control (NS) facts increased from immediate to delayed retrieval. C, The vmPFC (subgenual ACC) and the hippocampus showed a larger activity increase from immediate to delayed retrieval of SR (red bars) than control (NS, blue bars) facts. Error bars indicate SEM around the mean, corrected for interindividual differences (Loftus and Masson, 1994). Visualization threshold p < 0.001, uncorrected.
- Figure 5.
Encoding–encoding similarity (pattern robustness). A, Encoding–encoding similarity between succeeding rounds was greater for novel SR (red bars) than control facts (NS, blue bars) in the right IFG (left). The overall sensitivity of this approach is visualized in A (right) in terms of the main effect. B, Encoding–encoding similarity between the first two rounds was greater in early visual cortex (left) and between Rounds 2 and 3 in the precuneus (left) for novel SR than control facts (NS). The IFG and cuneus cluster are not significant corrected for multiple comparisons and are reported for exploratory reasons. Error bars indicate SEM around the mean, corrected for interindividual differences (Loftus and Masson, 1994). Visualization threshold p < 0.001, uncorrected.
- Figure 6.
Encoding operation similarity. A, Encoding-operation similarity within rounds was early in learning greater between encoding of novel SR (SR-SR, red bars) than between SR and control (SR-NS, blue bars) facts in the vPC/RSC, vmPFC, and the bilateral angular gyrus. B, Encoding-operation similarity between rounds during encoding of novel-related (SR-SR) facts was also greater compared with SR-NS facts in the vPC/RSC and vmPFC. C, Operation similarity between encoding of SR facts and retrieval of schema-knowledge was also greater compared with the encoding of control facts in the vPC/RSC and vmPFC. Error bars indicate SEM around the mean, corrected for interindividual differences (Loftus and Masson, 1994). Visualization threshold p < 0.001, uncorrected.
Tables
Contrast Area xyz coordinate peak voxel Z value peak voxel Encoding SR > NS main effect vmPFC 0, 54, −15 4.34 vPC/RSC −9, −57, 15 6.36 12, −57, 18 4.67 Superior parietal cortex −36, −78, 39 5.34 48, −72, 33 4.79* Post cingulate cortex −3, −36, 33 4.81 NS > SR main effect Frontal pole −30, 51, 21 5.00 36, 54, 18 5.32 ACC 6, 36, 18 5.69 Occipital pole 9, −81, −3 6.94 Lateral occipital cortex −45, −78, 0 4.85 33, −90, −9 4.78 SR > NS increase across rounds Supramarginal gyrus 57, −39, 24 4.95 IFG/insula −51, −6, 0 4.82 54, 12, −3 4.88 ACC −3, 33, 15 4.93 SR > NS decrease across rounds vmPFC −3, 51, −32 4.70 vPC/RSC −12, −57, 15 4.09 Dorsal medial PFC −3, 36, 39 6.07 IFG −45, 39, −12 5.92 Dorsolateral PFC −42, 15, 42 4.88 PPI SR > NS seed vmPFC main effect Hippocampus −21, −24, −15 3.99 Fusiform gyrus −30, −57, −15 5.33 33, −54, −12 6.00 IFG 48, 36, 3 5.63 Superior parietal cortex 15, −66, 51 5.04 33, −42, 42 4.91 Dorsal precuneus −9, −39, 57 5.03 −9, −69, 51 4.89 Supramarginal gyrus −57, −45, 27 4.98 PPI SR > NS seed vmPFC decrease across rounds Hippocampus −27, −21, −21 3.63 15, −12, −21 5.09 Dorsal precuneus 9, −63, 51 6.69 Retrieval SR > NS vmPFC 3, 30, −21 4.57 vPC/RSC −9, −57, 15 6.49 9, −54, 15 5.68 NS > SR ACC −6, 33, 21 5.06 Insula −39, 15, −9 4.97 33, 18, −15 4.46* Frontal pole 24, 57, −3 4.66 Increase SR > NS vmPFC −6, 18, −9 3.76 Hippocampus 27, −24, −15 3.74 PPI increase SR > NR seed vmPFC vPC 15, −48, 33 4.23 Schema-knowledge Schema retrieval > immediate novel SR retrieval Ventrolateral PFC −42, 9, 30 3.99 ACC 9, 18, 39 5.31 vPC 21, −66, 3 5.04 Insula 30, 24, −9 5.09 −30, 24, −6 4.96 Ventral striatum −18, 9, −6 4.84 18, 25, −6 5.58
