Abstract
Noninvasive electrical stimulation of the vestibular system in humans has become an increasingly popular tool with a broad range of research and clinical applications. However, common assumptions regarding the neural mechanisms that underlie the activation of central vestibular pathways through such stimulation, known as galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS), have not been directly tested. Here, we show that GVS is encoded by VIIIth nerve vestibular afferents with nonlinear dynamics that differ markedly from those predicted by current models. GVS produced asymmetric activation of both semicircular canal and otolith afferents to the onset versus offset and cathode versus anode of applied current, that in turn produced asymmetric eye movement responses in three awake-behaving male monkeys. Additionally, using computational methods, we demonstrate that the experimentally observed nonlinear neural response dynamics lead to an unexpected directional bias in the net population response when the information from both vestibular nerves is centrally integrated. Together our findings reveal the neural basis by which GVS activates the vestibular system, establish that neural response dynamics differ markedly from current predictions, and advance our mechanistic understanding of how asymmetric activation of the peripheral vestibular system alters vestibular function. We suggest that such nonlinear encoding is a general feature of neural processing that will be common across different noninvasive electrical stimulation approaches.
SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Here, we show that the application of noninvasive electrical currents to the vestibular system (GVS) induces more complex responses than commonly assumed. We recorded vestibular afferent activity in macaque monkeys exposed to GVS using a setup analogous to human studies. GVS evoked notable asymmetries in irregular afferent responses to cathodal versus anodal currents. We developed a nonlinear model explaining these GVS-evoked afferent responses. Our model predicts that GVS induces directional biases in centrally integrated head motion signals and establishes electrical stimuli that recreate physiologically plausible sensations of motion. Altogether, our findings provide new insights into how GVS activates the vestibular system, which will be vital to advancing new clinical and biomedical applications.
