Serotonin–dopamine interaction: electrophysiological evidence
Introduction
This chapter is devoted to the analysis and discussion of the most relevant data regarding serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)/dopamine (DA) interaction in the brain, as studied by electrophysiological methods. Both in vivo and in vitro findings will be reviewed, although emphasis will be given to data obtained by in vivo extracellular single-cell recordings. The bulk of neuroanatomical data available clearly indicate that DA-containing neurons in the brain receive a prominent innervation from 5-HT originating in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem (Fig. 1). Thus, the detailed knowledge of this neuroanatomical wiring is an obvious prerequisite for the understanding of the functional interaction of 5-HT and DA systems, including the electrophysiological findings.
The presence of 5-HT-containing nerve fibres in the substantia nigra (SN) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) was first demonstrated by Fuxe (1965) using formaldehyde-induced fluorescence histochemistry. Subsequent studies have confirmed and extended these findings, showing also that 5-HT fibres coming from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) were distributed significantly to the SN and the VTA (Fibiger and Miller, 1977; Azmitia and Segal, 1978; Steinbusch, 1981; Hervé et al., 1987; Mori et al., 1987; Wirtshafter et al., 1987; Lavoie and Parent, 1990; Van Bockstaele et al., 1994; Van Bockstaele and Pickel, 1994; Moukhles et al., 1997; Vertes and Linley, 2007), and to the main projection areas of the nigro-striatal and the mesolimbic DA-ergic system, such as the corpus striatum, the globus pallidus, the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, olfactory tubercle and the frontal cortex (Azmitia and Segal, 1978; Steinbusch, 1981; Lavoie and Parent, 1990; Vertes and Linley, 2007). In contrast, 5-HT fibres arising from medial raphe nucleus (MRN) innervate the VTA but not the SN, although the concentration of 5-HT terminals in this area is less dense as compared to the SN (Fibiger and Miller, 1977; Azmitia and Segal, 1978; Steinbusch, 1981; Mori et al., 1987; Wirtshafter et al., 1987; Lavoie and Parent, 1990; Vertes and Linley, 2007). In fact, it is noteworthy that the SN receives the densest 5-HT innervation of the brain in several animal species, including rats (Palkovits et al., 1974; Saavedra, 1977; Moukhles et al., 1997), monkeys (Shannak and Ornykiewicz, 1980; Lavoie and Parent, 1990) and humans (Fahn et al., 1971; Mackay et al., 1978). Other investigations revealed the raphe-nigral projection arises mainly from the DRN and terminates principally in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) (Azmitia and Segal, 1978; Mori et al., 1987; Lavoie and Parent, 1990; Corvaja et al., 1993; Moukhles et al., 1997). Thus, it has been reported that 5-HT neurons innervate both DA and non-DA neurons in the VTA (Hervé et al., 1987; Van Bockstaele et al., 1994), with as many as 50% of [3H]5-HT forming synaptic contacts in this area (Hervé et al., 1987). Of these 5-HT terminals, about 32% formed synaptic junctions with perikarya or dendrites containing tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity (i.e. DA neurons) (Van Bockstaele et al., 1994).
Quantitative autoradiographic mapping of 5-HT in the rat brain showed the presence of 5-HT receptor subtypes on both nigro-striatal and mesocorticolimbic DA-ergic systems (Pazos et al., 1985; Pazos and Palacios, 1985). Thus, by using tritiated 5-HT ligands, it was found that 5-HT1 receptors were present in the SN and, in particular, in the SNr (which contains high concentrations of 5-HT1B receptors), the corpus striatum and several areas of the mesocorticolimbic system such as the VTA, the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, the olfactory tubercle and the frontal cortex (Pazos and Palacios, 1985). Also, 5-HT2A receptors (which at that time were simply named 5-HT2) are distributed in most DA-ergic areas of the brain, including the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), the VTA, the striatum, the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, the olfactory tubercle, the entorhinal cortex and the frontal cortex (Pazos et al., 1985). Autoradiographic mapping studies also showed the presence of 5-HT2C receptors (which at that time were defined 5-HT1C, and were labelled by tritiated 5-HT and mesulergine) in several brain regions, including nuclei of origin and terminal areas of central DA-ergic systems, such as the SNc, the VTA, the striatum, the nucleus accumbens, the entorhinal cortex and the frontal cortex (Pazos and Palacios, 1985). Subsequent autoradiographic studies confirmed the presence of 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors in several DA-ergic areas of the human brain (Hoyer et al., 1986; Pazos et al., 1987; Marazziti et al., 1999). In addition, relatively high densities of 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 receptor subtypes have been detected in terminal areas of the mesolimbic DA-ergic system, whereas low or undetectable levels of 5-HT3 receptors are present in the VTA, or the nigro-striatal DA system (Barnes et al., 1990; Kilpatrick et al., 1996) (Table 1).
A number of studies, using in situ hybridization histochemistry and immunohistochemical techniques, have shown the presence of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C mRNAs receptor proteins localized on neuronal components of the nigro-striatal and mesocorticolimbic DA-ergic systems of rodents (Molineaux et al., 1989; Mengod et al., 1990a, Mengod et al., 1990b; Pompeiano et al., 1994; Wright et al., 1995; Ward and Dorsa, 1996; Eberle-Wang et al., 1997; Clemett et al., 2000; Doherty and Pickel, 2000; Ikemoto et al., 2000; Bubar and Cunningham, 2007; Liu et al., 2007) and humans (Abramowski et al., 1995; Pasqualetti et al., 1999), whereas 5-H2B receptor proteins were undetectable on these neurons (Duxon et al., 1997). It is important to note that double-label in situ hybridization in the SN reveals co-expression of 5-HT2C receptor mRNA with glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) but not with TH mRNA, indicating that 5-HT2C receptors are restricted to γ-amino-n-butyric acid (GABA)-ergic neurons, both in adult rats (Eberle-Wang et al., 1997) and in humans (Pasqualetti et al., 1999). However, it was recently found that in the VTA, 5-HT2C receptor protein is expressed on both DA and GABA-containing neurons (Bubar and Cunningham, 2007). Similarly, 5-HT2A receptors are localized on both DA (about 20–40% of the population, according to different authors) and non-DA neurons in the VTA (Cornea-Hebert et al., 1999; Doherty and Pickel, 2000; Ikemoto et al., 2000; Nocjar et al., 2002), although in this case the neurochemical nature of non-DA neurons was not established. The presence of both 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors has also been detected in neurons containing GABA, acetylcholine, enkephalin, substance P or dynorphin, in various terminal regions of the nigro-striatal and mesocorticolimbic DA system, such as the striatum (Ward and Dorsa, 1996), the nucleus accumbens, the lateral amygdala, the pyriform cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) (Morilak et al., 1993; Liu et al., 2007).
The 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors display 50% overall amino acid sequence homology and >80% sequence homology within the transmembrane domain regions (Boess and Martin, 1994; Martin and Humphrey, 1994). Likewise, the 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors are both coupled to Gαq/11 and activate the downstream effector phospholipase C (PLC), thus stimulating the hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids and the production of inositol-1-4,5-triphosphate and diacylglycerol, leading to increased intracellular Ca2+ (Hoyer et al., 2002). Moreover, both receptors couple with Gαq/11 to activate phospholipase A2 (PLA2), independent of PLC activation (Felder et al., 1990). Despite these similarities in signalling mechanisms, subtle differences between 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C signalling cascades also exist (Table 2). In addition, agonists have been shown to activate signalling pathways differentially and to couple to their effectors in an agonist-independent manner (constitutive activity), although this differs with regard to receptor and effectors (Berg et al., 2005). For example, the 5-HT2C receptors express greater constitutive activity towards PLC, but the 5-HT2C receptor has relatively weak constitutive activity towards PLA2 (determined by arachidonic acid release) (Berg et al., 2005).
Section snippets
Dopamine modulation of serotonergic neurons activity
It is noteworthy that midbrain DA nuclei also control the activity of 5-HT neurons; thus, the control is reciprocal in nature. Indeed, a dense direct projection from the SNc to the DRN by retrograde tracer technique has been characterized (Sakai et al., 1977). These results have been extended successively using injection of tritiated leucine and proline into the VTA and SNc-labelled fibres, confirming an overlapping descending pathway to the DRN (Beckstead et al., 1979). The DA-ergic
Conclusions and future directions
Despite the fact that electrophysiological data regarding the interaction between the serotonergic and the DA-ergic systems in the brain have accumulated over a period of about 35 years of intensive research, the exact effect of 5-HT on the activity of DA neurons is far from being completely understood.
The modulation of DA-ergic activity by the serotonergic system is complex, and complicated by the large number of 5-HT receptor subtypes present in DA nuclei and in their target areas. It can
Abbreviations
- Ψ
functional operator equivalent to the density power spectrum of the signals
- 5,7-DHT
5,7-dihydroxytryptamine
- 5-HT
5-hydroxytryptamine, serotonin
- CNS
central nervous system
- DA
dopamine
- DRN
dorsal raphe nucleus
- EPSC
excitatory postsynaptic current
- GABA
γ-amino-n-butyric acid
- GAD
glutamic acid decarboxylase
- GIRKs
inwardly rectifying potassium channels
- GLU
glutamate
- Ih
hyperpolarization-activated cation current
- IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
- IS-SD
initial segment-somatodendritic
- mGLUR
metabotropic glutamate receptor
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